Exam 3 Flashcards
(162 cards)
1
Q
which type of animal likely spends the least amount of time in the handling phase of the predation process
A
herbivores
Handling involves dispatching the prey and accessing the edible portions, which will likely be more difficult for animal prey compared to plant prey
2
Q
Prairie dogs live in colonies where some members are always on the lookout for predators. If they see a predator, they will call out a waring for other colony members to flee. This would be classified as a … defense.
A
behavioral
3
Q
A prey species with great cryptic defenses will likely elicit which type of functional response from a predator?
A
type III
A Type III response indicates difficulty for predators in finding their prey until the density increases to a certain point.
4
Q
If at a certain point in time, you find that both the predator and the prey populations are more abundant than their respective isocline value, you would expect predator populations to … and prey populations to ….
A
increase; decrease
This scenario would occur in quadrant 3; you would expect predators to increase and prey to decrease.
5
Q
variation in population size over time and space
A
population dynamics
6
Q
- populations that grow beyond their carrying capacity
- can occur when the carrying capacity of a habitat decreases from one year to the next
A
overshoot
7
Q
a substantial decline in population density that typically goes well below the carrying capacity
A
die-off
8
Q
regular oscillation of population size over a long period of time
A
population cycles
9
Q
populations are stable at
A
carrying capacity
10
Q
when a population experiences a large reduction in size during a die-off, it can
A
undershoot its carrying capacity
11
Q
A
12
Q
Whenever the size of the population decreases due to predation, disease, or a density-independent event, the population responds by
A
growing
13
Q
when the abundances of trophic groups in a community are determined by the amount of energy available from producers in that community
A
bottom-up control
14
Q
when the abundance of trophic groups is determined by the existence of predators at the top of the food web
A
top-down control
15
Q
because most communities contain an abundance of vegetation, trophic groups must be controlled from the
A
top of the food web
16
Q
- indirect effects that are caused by the changes in the traits of an intermediate species
- commonly happens when a predator causes its prey to change its feeding behavior, which in turn alters the amount of food consumed by the prey
A
trait-mediated indirect effects
17
Q
indirect effects that are caused by the density of an intermediate species
A
density-mediated indirect effects
18
Q
- occurs when two species interact without involving other species
- often set off a chain of events that affects stlll other species in the community
A
direct effect
19
Q
when two species interact in a way that involves one or more intermediate species
A
indirect effect
20
Q
- when indirect effects are initiated by a predator
- can also be initiated when one species causes changes in the traits of another species
A
trophic cascade
21
Q
group species that feed on similar items but need not be closely related
A
guilds
22
Q
the levels in a food chain or food web of an ecosystem
A
trophic levels
23
Q
first trophic level of a food web
A
producers
24
Q
those that eat producers
A
primary consumers
25
those that eat primary consumers
secondary consumers
26
eat secondary consumers
tertiary consumers
27
consumers of dead organic matter
scavengers, detritivores, and decomposers
28
* linear representations of how species in a community consume each other and therefore how they transfer energy and nutrients from one group to another in an ecosystem
* greatly simplify species interactions in a community
food chain
29
* complex and realistic representations of how species feed on each other in a community and include links among many species of producers, consumers, detritivores, scavengers, and decomposers
* Describe the feeding relationships of ecological communities
food webs
30
why is analyzing the feeding relationships of ecological communities so important
feeding relationships help determine whether a species can exist in a community and whether it will be rare or abundant
31
frequently disturbed habitats typically support
species that are adapted to disturbances
32
tells us that more species are present in a community that experiences occasional disturbances than in a community that experiences frequent or rare disturbances
intermediate disturbance hypothesis
33
When the product is a high value (rτ > 1.57)
the population continues to exhibit large oscillations over time, a pattern known as a stable limit cycle
34
a population that continues to exhibit large oscillations
stable limit cycle
35
If this product is an intermediate value (0.37 < rτ < 1.57)
the population initially oscillates, but the magnitude of the oscillations declines over time (damped oscillations)
36
the population initially oscillates, but the magnitude of the oscillations declines over time
damped oscillations
37
When this product is a low value (rτ < 0.37)
the population approaches the carrying capacity without any oscillations
38
The smallest populations experienced the ... probability of extinction and the largest populations experienced the ... probability of extinction
highest; lowest
39
When a model is designed to predict a result without accounting for random variation in the population growth rate
deterministic model
40
When random variation in birth rates and death rates is due to differences among individuals and not due to changes in the environment
demographic stochiasticity
41
when random variation in birth rates and death rates is due to changes in the environmental conditions
environmental stochiasticity
42
When disturbances in a community are of low frequency or intensity species richness is
is relatively low
43
when disturbances are moderate in frequency or intensity, species richness
is relatively high
44
when disturbances are high in frequency or intensity, species richness
declines
45
* substantially affect the structure of communities even when the individuals of that species may not be particularly numerous
* can cause a community to collapse
* influence the structure of a habitat
* sometimes called ecosystem engineers
keystone species
46
species diversity is affected by
* resource availability
* habitat diversity and connectivity
* keystone species
* disturbances
47
a larger population is broken up into smaller groups of conspecifics that live in isolated patches
subpopulations
48
The collection of subpopulations that live in isolated patches are linked by dispersal
metapopulation
49
* show the relative abundance of each species in a community in rank order from the most abundant to the least abundant
* are particularly good for illustrating how communities differ in species richness and species evenness
rank-abundance curves
50
a comparison of the relative abundance of each species in a community
species evenness
51
in a rank-abundance curve, the most abundant species receives a rank of
1
52
The greatest evenness occurs when
all species in a community have equal abundances
53
the least evenness occurs when
one species is abundant and the remaining species are rare
54
measures of species diversity
* Shannon-Wiener Index
* Simpson's Index
55
patterns of abundance
absolute and relative
56
a normal, or bell-shaped distribution that uses a logarithmic scale of the y axis
log-normal distribution
57
the number of individuals of each species that are counted
absolute abundance
58
the proportion of individuals in a community represented by each species
relative abundance
59
refers to the number of species in a community
species richness
60
When individuals frequently disperse among subpopulations, the whole population functions as a
single structure and they all increase and decrease in abundance synchronously
61
live on the outside of organisms
ectoparasites
62
* live inside organisms
* typically cause fatal diseases
endoparasites
63
When dispersal is infrequent, however, the abundance of individuals in each subpopulation
can fluctuate independently of one another
64
a process by which small habitats represent only fragments of the original habitat
habitat fragmentation
65
we characterize communities by
either by their dominant organisms or by the physical conditions that affect the distribution of species
66
when do metapopulations typically occur
* when a habitat is naturally patchy
* result of human activities
67
models of spatial structure of subpopulations
* basic metapopulation model
* source-sink metapopulation model
* landscape metapopulation model
68
* those in which the species do not depend on each other to exist
* composed of species that live in the same place because they have similar adaptations and habitat requirements
independent communities
69
* those in which species depend on each other to exist
* act as superorganisms
interdependent communities
70
* describes a scenario in which there are patches of suitable habitat embedded within a matrix of unsuitable habitat'
* emphasize how colonization and extinction events can affect the proportion of total suitable habitats that are occupied
* indicates that a metapopulation persists because of a balance between extinction of the subpopulation in some habitat patches and the colonization of others
basic metapopulation model
71
* builds on the basic metapopulation model and adds the reality that different patches of suitable habitat are not of equal quality
source-sink metapopulation model
72
* occupants of high-quality habitats are a source of dispersers
source subpopulation
73
* low-quality habitats that rarely produce enough offspring to produce any dispersers
* These habitats depend on outside dispersers to maintain the subpopulation
sink subpopulations
74
* incorporates differences in the quality of the suitable patches and the quality of the surrounding matrix
* most realistic, yet the most complex, spatial structure of the populations
* Fluctuations in abundance in one subpopulation can influence the abundance of other subpopulations
landscape metapopulation model
75
how we determine whether a community is made up of an interdependent or an independent group of species
* line transect studies
* removing one or more species from the community
76
* boundary created by sharp changes in environmental conditions over a relatively short distance, accompanied by a major change in the composition of species
* typically support a large number of species
* typically documented by a line-transect survey to determine the abundances of different species along an environmental gradient
ecotone
77
* When two species have a negative effect on each other through an enemy–including a predator, parasite, or herbivore
* causes an outcome that looks like competition, but the underlying mechanism is not competition
apparent competition
78
* individuals consume and drive down the abundance of a resource to the point that other individuals cannot persist
exploitative competition
79
types of competition
* apparent
* exploitative
* interference
80
* when competitors do not immediately consume resources but defend the resources
* antagonistic interactions that result in resource exclusion for the subordinate competitor; energy is spent interfering w/ competitor
interference competition
81
interference competition involves a ... interaction
direct
82
exploitative competition is considered an ... interaction
indirect
## Footnote
operates through a shared resource
83
types of interference competition
* aggressive interactions
* allelopathy
84
* occurs when organisms use chemicals to interfere with their competitors
* can be a phenotypically plastic trait
allelopathy
85
the most competitive animals are typically
the most susceptible to predators
85
the outcome of competition can be altered by
* abiotic conditions
* disturbances
* interactions w/ other species (predation and herbivory)
86
If the subpopulations rarely exchange individuals, the fluctuations in abundance will be
independent among subpopulations
87
if subpopulations are highly connected by individuals frequently moving among habitat patches, the subpopulation will
act as one large population, with all experiencing the same fluctuations
88
ways to increase the total number of individuals in a metapopulation
* provide corridors between neighboring populations, thereby increasing the rate of colonization
* decrease the rates of extinction reducing the major causes of population decline in subpopulations
89
90
habitat patches are ... equal in quality
rarely
91
which patches are less likely to be occupied
* small
* distant
92
* the phenomenon of dispersers supplementing a declining subpopulation that is headed toward extinction
* should result in a higher probability that less isolate patches will be occupied
rescue effect
93
When any species is introduced to a region of the world where it has not historically existed
introduced / exotic / non-native species
94
an introduced species that spreads rapidly and has negative effects on other species and human economies
invasive species
95
95
* live within and consume the tissues of a living host, eventually killing it
* limit the abundance of their prey
parasitoids
96
introductions of one species to help control the abundance of another species
biological control
97
predators that exist in ecological communities
* mesopredators
* top predators
98
competition is most intense between what relation of species
closely related species
99
* one species persist, the other dies out
* two species cannot coexist indefinitely when they are both limited by the same resource
* when two species are limited by the same resource, one species either is better at obtaining the resource or is better able to survive when the resource is scarce
competitive exclusion principle
100
* states that a population increases until the supply of the most limiting resource prevents it from increasing further
* assumes that if a given resource limits the growth of individuals and populations, increasing the availability of other resources will not improve such growth
* whichever resource reaches its limiting value first will be the resource that regulates the growth of the diatom population
* When two species compete for a single limiting resource, the species that wins in competition is the one that can persist at lower level of the resource
Liebig's law of the minimum
101
* constantly regenerated
* can originate from either inside or outside the ecosystem in which the competitors live
renewable resources
102
anything an organism consumes or uses that causes an increase in the growth rate of a population when it becomes more avialable
resource
103
# true or false:
ecological factors can be considered resources
false
104
* can cause the population of either species to decline and eventually die out
* competition among individuals of different species
interspecific competition
105
competition among individuals of the same species
intraspecific competition
106
when two or more species continue to evolve in response to each other's evolution
coevolution
107
when all species involved in an interaction coevolve together, which species is likely to get an upper hand
none
108
host adaptations to parasites
* avoiding areas that have been contaminated w/ feces that contain parasites
* removing ectoparasites from around their body
* producing antibacterial and antifungal chemicals
109
parasite adaptations against host
* leaving the body of the first host and then searching for the second host
* manipulating behavior of the first host to ensure that the second host consumes it
110
hosts experience higher fitness if
they avoid being parasitized
111
close synchrony of population cycles between predators and the prey they consume suggests
oscillations are the result of interactions between them
112
incorporates oscillations in the abundances of predator and prey populations and shows predator numbers lagging behind those of their prey
Lotka-Volterra
113
assumptions of the SIR model
* no births of new susceptible individuals and that individuals retain any resistance they develop
* if a pathogen can kill the host, the pathogen should increase in abundance until the hosts begin to die
* as the host population declines, the pathogen population will subsequently decline, and as the pathogen population declines, the host population should subsequently recover
114
if R0 > 1
infection will continue to spread through the population and an epidemic will occur
115
when R0 < 1,
infection fails to take hold in the host population
116
the probability that a host will become infected by a parasite depends on
* parasite's mechanism of transmission
* mode of entry into host's body
* ability to jump between species
* existence of reservoir species
* response of host immune system
117
when a new disease is discovered, or a formerly common disease that declined in the past suddenly becomes common again
emerging infectious disease
118
* occurs when a parasite moves between individuals other than parents to their offspring
* risk of transmission is essentially zero
horizontal transmission
119
* occurs when a parasite is transmitted from a parent to its offspring
* parasite must evolve in such a way that it does not cause the death of its host until after the host has reproduced and passed the parasite to its offspring
vertical transmission
120
carry a parasite but do not succumb to the disease that the parasite causes in other species; serve as a continuous source of parasites as other susceptible host species become rare
reservoir species
121
several groups of roundworms and flat worms that can cause serious diseases
helminths
122
* begin as a beneficial protein in the brain of an animal, but occasionally a proteinf olds into an incorrect shape and becomes pathogenic
* do not contain RNA or DNA, replicate by coming into contact with normal proteins and causing the normal proteins to fold incorrectly
prions
123
disadvantage of ectoparasitism
* exposed to the variable conditions of the external environment
* must find a way to pierce the flesh of their host to feed
124
advantage of endoparasitism vs ectoparasitism
* endoparasites have the advantage of being protected form the external environment and are therefore not exposed to most of their enemies
* living inside the host gives easy asccess to the host's body fluids on which they feed
125
disadvantage of endoparasitism
* must contend with host immune system
* may have a difficult time getting in/out of the host body
126
relationship between the density of the prey population and an individual predator's rate of food consumption
functional response of the predator
127
* occurs when a predator's rate of prey consumption increases linearly with an increase in prey density until the predator is satiated
* functional response used by Lotka-Volterra
type I functional response
128
* occurs when the number of prey consumed solows as prey population density increases and then plateaus
* the number of prey consumed slows because as predators consume more prey, they must spend more time handling the prey
* slowing rate of prey consumption causes a decline in the proportion of prey consumed by each predator
type II functional response
129
costs of defenses against predators
* reduced feeding or increased crowding as prey move to locations away form predators
* cost of reduced growth and development
* energetically expensive to produce
130
when a palatable species evolves to closely resemble an aposematic species
Batesian mimicry
131
occurs when several unpalatable species evolve a similar pattern of warning coloration
Mullerian mimicry
132
the advertising by an animal to potential predators that it is not worth attacking or eating
aposematism
133
predator hunting strategies
active hunting or ambush hunting
134
most ommon behavioral defenses agaisnt predators
alarm calling, spatial avoidance, reduced activity
135
avoiding being detected by a predator through camouflage that either matches the environment or breaks up the outline of an individual to blend in better with the background environment
crypsis
136
a change in the number of predators through population growth or population movement due to immigration or emigration
numerical responses
137
* prey consumption increases very slowly when prey population density increases from very low numbers
* consumption is rapid when prey population density is moderate
* prey consumption slows when prey population density is high
* as predators spend more time handling prey and eventually become satiated, this proportion subsequently declines
type III functional response
138
* number of predators associated w/ a stable prey population
* P = r/c
predator zero growth isocline
139
in the region above the predator isocline line, the prey population
decreases because predators remove them faster than they can reproduce
140
* number of prey that causes the predator population to become stable
* any combination of predator and prey numbers that lie to the right of the line allows predator population to increase (increased abundance of prey
* in region to left, predator population decreases due to lack of prey
zero growth prey isocline
141
change in abundance by considering trajectory of both populations simultaneously
joint population trajectory
142
three factors that impact the slowly increasing consumption at low prey population
* prey can hide in refuges where they are safe from predators
* predators have less practice locating and catching prey and therefore are relatively poor at doing it
* prey switching
143
occurs when one prey species is rare and a predator changes its preference to another prey species that is more abundant
prey switching
144
a learned mental image that helps the predator locate and capture food
search image
145
simplest model of infectious disease transmission that incorporates immunity
susceptible-infected-resistant (SIR) model
146
differences between the parasite-host and predator-prey model
* parasites, unlike predators, do not always remove host individuals from a population
* hosts, unlike prey, may develop immune responses that make some individuals resistant to the pathogen
147
the first individual to be infected by a pathogen
primary case of disease
148
variables that convert between the number of individuals of one species and the number of individuals of the other species
competition coefficients
149
line that represents all population sizes at which a population experiences zero growth
zero population growth isocline
150
in stressful environments, how likely is it to see competitive interacts
unlkely
151
what specific characteristic is not a trait ticks use to detect, pursue, catch, and handle "prey"?
barbed tongue
152
# true or false:
Liebig's law of the minimum: the species that's better at surviving with smaller amounts of resource is a better competitor
false
153
# true or false:
carnivores typically have longer digestive tracts than herbivores
false
154
which statement is consistent with the competitive exclusion principle?
2 species with identical niches cannot coexist indefinitely
155
group of species interacting in the same place at the same time
community
156
factors that determine communities
water, soil, topography
157
the theory of how communities assemble that emphasizes immigration, extinction, and speciation, and the randomness of those processes; more ecological drift
neutral theory
158
the theory of how communities assemble that focuses on species traits and adaptations; more stable communities
niche theory
159
can occur by resource partitioning (at different times or different locations)
competitive coexistence
160
competition alters a species ... niche and requires a ... resource
realized; limiting
