Exam 3 Flashcards
(191 cards)
1
Q
What carries oxygen poor blood to the lungs and back to the heart?
A
Pulmonary ciruit
2
Q
What carries blood from the heart to the rest of the body?
A
Systemic circuit
3
Q
What is the right AV called?
A
Tricuspid
4
Q
What is the left AV called?
A
Bicuspid
5
Q
The aortic valve is also called?
A
Semilunar valve
6
Q
Explain cardiac action potential?
A
1) Na+ enters (depolarization)
2) Transient K+ exit
3) Ca2+ enters and K+ exits (plateau phase)
-this doesn’t happen in skeletal muscle
4) K+ exits (re-polarization)
7
Q
Explain the step in heart beat coordination?
A
-Pacemaker cells (generate own AP)
1) SA node Pacemaker (right atrium) depolarization of both atria
3) AV node
4) Bundle of his
5) Purkinje fibers
8
Q
What occurs during atrial excitation? and what occurs on EKG
A
1) SA node and AV node excite
2) *** P-wave (atrial depolarization)
9
Q
What occurs during ventricular excitation/ depolarization? and what occurs on EKG
A
1) Ventricles contract
2) QRS wave
***when this occurs it masks atrial re-polarization/ relaxation
10
Q
What occurs during Ventricular re-polarization (relaxation)? and what occurs on EKG
A
1) Ventricles relax
2) T wave
11
Q
What is the process of producing an electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG), a recording of the electrical activity of the heart using electrodes placed on the skin, represented as a graph?
A
Electrocadiography
12
Q
What is a record or graph of a person’s heartbeat produced by electrocardiography?
A
Electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG)
13
Q
What requires the temporary threading of a thin, flexible tube called a catheter through an artery or vein into the heart?
A
Cardiac angiography
14
Q
What is a noninvasive technique that uses ultrasound?
A
Echocardiography
15
Q
this is a conducting cell that takes over excitation in the conduction system?
-If the SA node is damaged the AV node can take over. This is still adequate for normal circulation.
A
Ectopic pacemaker
16
Q
What are uncoordinated atrial and ventricular contractions caused by a defect in the conduction system?
A
Arrhythmias
17
Q
What is a rapid and irregular (usually out of phase) where the SA node is no longer controlling heart rate:
There are 2 types?
A
1) Fibrillation
-Atrial fibrillation
-Ventricle Fibrillation
(these are Arrhythmias)
18
Q
What is the application of an electrical stimulus to shock the heart back into a normal SA rhythm? For chronic conditions _____________ can be implanted. This is a device that delivers the electrical stimulus rather than the SA node.
A
1) Defibrillation
2) Pacemaker
19
Q
(heart sounds)
Normal open valve
A
Laminar flow= quiet
20
Q
(heart sounds)
Stenotic Valve
A
Narrow valve = Turbulent flow = murmur
21
Q
(heart sounds)
Normal closed valve
A
No flow = quiet
22
Q
(heart sounds)
Insufficient valve
A
Leaky valve = turbulent backflow = murmur
23
Q
_______ is 90% water and carries electrolytes and nutrients (glucose, amino acids, vitamins) as well as wastes (urea, bilirubin, creatine), gases (O2 and CO2), and hormones
A
Plasma
24
Q
__________ is plasma with fibrinogen and other proteins involved in clotting removed.
A
Serum
25
Explain Erythrocyte (or RBC) Formation
1) Kidney secretes EPO in Blood
2) EPO enters bone marrow causing (Erythropoiesis) forming erythrocytes
3) Erythrocytes travel through the blood to the spleen
4) Spleen breaks down Erythrocytes into iron and Brilirubin
5) Bilirubin enters liver and is converted into bile
6) Bile is excreted by the kidney into the urine
26
If there is an increase in the breakdown of Erythrocyte by the spleen this causes an increases in brilirubin which increases bile production by the liver which leads to which disease?
Jaundice/ Splenomegaly
27
What happens to patients who kidney have failed?
they have to little erythropoietin and need to have synthetic forms administered to maintain normal RBC count
28
What also enhances RBC production by increasing EPO production?
Testosterone
29
What is defined as a decrease in the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood?
Anemia
30
What are cytoplasmic fragments derived from megakaryocytes, these are cell fragments have NO ORGANELLES, but they do have GRANULES and are important in blood clotting?
Platelets also known as thrombocytes
31
the Granules contain secretory products:
1) ADP
2) Serotonin
3) epinephrine
32
What is the physiological mechanisms that stop bleeding called?
Hemostasis
33
What are the 3 steps in hemostasis?
1) Vasular spasm
2) Formation of platelet plug
3) Blood coagulation (clotting)
34
After hemostasis intact blood vessel then secretes NITRIC OXIDE (NO) and PROSTACYCLIN which causes respective:
1) Vasodilation
2) Inhibit platelet aggregation
35
What are anticoagulants?
Prevent clot formation
36
What are some anticoagulants?
1) Aspirin (inhibit prostaglandins)
2) Heparin (inhibits thrombin activity)
3) Citrate (inhibits clotting factors)
37
What are phagocytes, and their production and release from the bone marrow increase during infection
Neutrophils
38
What fights off invasions by eukaryotic parasites; they either release toxic chemicals that kill parasites, or they phagocytize parasites
Eosinophils
39
What secretes anti-clotting factors called heparin at the site of infection, which helps the circulation flush out the infected site; they also secrete histamine to attract infection-fighting cells and proteins to the site?
Basophils
40
What are phagocytes that circulate in the blood for a short time, after which they migrate into tissues and organs and develop into macrophages?
Monocytes
41
What are large phagocytes capable of engulfing viruses and bacteria?
Macrophages
42
What are composed of T- and B- lymphocytes that protect against specific pathogens?
Lymphocytes
43
What is the cardiac cycle?
1) Diastole
2) Systole
44
What is the relaxation phase of the cardiac cycle?
Diastole
45
What is the contraction phase of the cardiac cycle?
Systole
46
What is the filling phase of the cardiac cycle?
Diastole
47
What is the pumping phase of the cardiac cycle?
Systole
48
What is the volume of blood in one ventricle at the end of diastole called?
End diastolic volume (EDV)
49
What is the volume of blood in one ventricle at the end of systole called?
End systolic volume (ESV)
50
What is the volume of blood ejected from one ventricle in each cycle called?
Stroke volume
51
What is the stroke volume equation?
SV= EDV - ESV
52
What happens to the SV if EDV increases?
SV increases
53
What happens to the SV if ESV increases?
SV decreases
54
What is the ability of the VENTRICLES to STRETCH and fill with blood?
Pre-load
55
What is the ability of the VENTRICLE TO EMPTY (has to push against aortic pressure)?
After-load
56
What is considered the venous return?
a) Pre-load
b) After-load
a) pre-load
57
what is the amount of blood pumped out of each ventricle in one minute called?
Cardiac Output
58
How do you calculate cardiac output?
SV*HR=CO
59
What causes an increase in heart rate?
Positive chronotropic factors (Norepinephrine = Sympathetic nervous system)
60
What causes heart rate to decrease?
Negative chronotropic factors (Acetylcholine = parasympathetic nervous system)
61
What states that the critical factor controlling stroke volume is PRELOAD?
-The most important factor in causing stretch is the amount of blood in the ventricles. The amount of blood in the ventricles is controlled by venous return.
Starlings law
62
this is defined as the ratio of stroke volume to end-diastolic volume (SV/EDV)
Ejection fraction
63
If you have increase contractility what happens to the ejection fraction?
Increases
64
What factors increase Cardiac Output?
1) Increase in EDV
2) Increase in sympathetic activity
3) Increase in epinephrine
4) Decrease in parasympathetic activity
65
What has more smooth muscle veins or arteries?
Arteries
66
During systole what happens to the arteries?
Vasodilation
67
During diastole what happens to the arteries?
Vasoconstriction
68
If compliance increases what happens to stretch in the arteries?
It increases
69
What is the maximum pressure reached during the peak of ventricular contraction and ejection?
Systolic pressure (SP)
70
What is the minimum arterial pressure reached just prior to ventricular ejection?
Diastolic pressure (DP)
71
what is SP/DP?
Arterial blood pressure
72
what is SP-DP called?
Pulse pressure
73
What is the average pressure driving blood to the tissues over cardiac cycle?
Mean arterial pressure
74
A decrease in arterial compliance occurs in ___________________
arteriosclerosis (stiffening of the arterioles)
75
In arterials the changes in diameter impacts ________________
blood pressure
76
If there is vasoconstriction what happens to blood flow?
Less blood flow
77
If there is less resistance what happens to blood vessels?
Vasodilation
78
Increase in total peripheral resistance (TPR) what happens to BP?
Increases
79
What is caused by non blood flow in coronary artery causing dead tissue in the heart?
Myocardial infarction
80
what condition is caused because of high metabolic activity?
Hypoxic
81
What are the steps in active hyperemia?
1) Increase metabolic activity of organ
2) Decrease oxygen, increase metabolites in organ interstitial fluid
3) Arterial dilation in organ
4) Increase blood flow to organ
82
What are the steps in flow regulation?
1) Decrease in arterial pressure in organ
2) decrease in blood flow to organ
3) Decrease in oxygen, increase in metabolites, decrease in vessel wall stretch
4) Ateriolar dilation in organ
83
Endothelial cells secrete ________________ that diffuse to the adjacent vascular smooth muscle inducing VASODILATION
paracrine agents
84
Velocity is the slowest in the ______________ because they have a greater cross-sectional area.
capillary beds
85
Delivers oxygen and nutrients to tissue this is called?
Filtration
86
Takes out waste products from tissue back into the blood this is called?
Absorption
87
Intersitial fluid contains
ICF (intracellular fluid)
88
this is the force exerted by the fluid pressing against a wall in the capillaries it is the same as the capillary blood pressure
hydrostatic pressure (Pc)
89
In capillaries the pressure tends to force fluids out _____________, especially on the arterial end, where pressure is higher
Filtration
90
this is the force that opposes the hydrostatic pressure.
-It is created by large plasma proteins.
osmotic pressure (Pie c)
91
If the hydrostatic pressure (Pc) is larger than the osmotic pressure (Pie c) what occurs?
Filtration
92
If the osmotic pressure is larger than the hydrostatic pressure what occurs?
Absorption
93
The osmotic pressure is the ____________ in the arterial end and the venuole end
same
94
Excess fluid go into the lymphatic system if the lymphatic system is blocked what occurs?
Edema (swelling)
95
What disease is associate with veins that have become DILATED and tortuous because of incompetent (Leaky) valves
Varicose veins
96
What are 4 factors that influence venous pressure?
1) Increase sympathetic
2) Increase blood volume
3) Increase skeletal muscle pump
4) Increase inspiration movements
97
What help convey information to the motor centers in the brain causing veins to constrict: increase venous pressure ---> increase EDV--> increase SV --> Increase CO
Arterial baroreceptors
98
If there is a hemorrhage this causes a decrease in arteriole pressure what senses the decrease and causes less firing--> this will trigger the vasomotor center to increase sympathetic discharge to the heart and decrease parasympathetic discharge?
Baroreceptor
99
What is the equation for mean arteriole pressure
CO * TPR
100
If there is an increase in arterial pressure how does your body decrease the arteriole pressure?
The kidneys release more urine (causing a decrease in blood volume)
101
What are the 3 causes of hypotension?
1) Hypovoiemic shock
2) Low-resistance shock
3) Cardiogenic shock
102
________________ is caused by a hemorrhage, severe vomiting, severe diarrhea, and extensive burns
hypovoiemic shock
103
_______________ is when blood volume is normal, but circulation is poor due to abnormal expansion of the vascular bed caused by extreme vasodilation (example allergic reaction)
Low resistance shock
104
__________ is pump failure. The heart can not sustain adequate circulation (example: myocardial infarction)
Cardiogenic shock
105
What is the cause of secondary hypertension?
Normally a tumor in the adrenal medulla (it can also be a sign of cushing's disease, physical obstruction of the renal arteries, kidney disease, arteriolosclerosis, hyperthyroidism
106
What medication can be given to a patient with hypertension?
1) Diuretics
2) Beta blockers
3) Calcium channel blockers
4) ACE inhibitors
107
The airways can be divided into the _______________ (where the gas exchange happens) and the _______________ (top of the trachea to the respiratory bronchioles
1) Respiratory zone
2) Conducting zone
108
Most of the air-facing surfaces of the wall are lined by a continuous layer, one cell thick, of flat epithelial cells called?
Typer I alveolar cells
109
_______________ that produce a detergent-like substance called SURFACTANT
Typer II alveolar
110
The total alveolar surface area is __________ and this permits the rapid exchange of large quantities of oxygen and carbon dioxide diffusion
Large
111
Explain the 5 processes in respiration
1) Ventilation: exchange of air between atmosphere and alveoli by bulk flow
2) Exchange of O2 and CO2 between alveolar air and blood in the lung capillaries
3) Transport of O2 and CO2 through pulmonary and systemic circulation by bulk flow
4) Exchange of O2 and CO2 between blood in tissue capillaries and cells in tissues by diffusion
5) Cellular utilization of O2 and production of CO2
112
What is the equation of FLOW?
Pressure divided by resistance
F=P/R
113
What states that at a constant temp the pressure of a gas varies inversely with its volume
Boyles law
(P1V1=P2V2)
if pressure increase volume deceases and vise versa
114
When the Palv < Patm what happens?
Air flows into the lungs
115
Palv
Negative pressure breathing
116
When Palv>Patm what happens?
Air flows out of lungs
117
The movement of air from the area of high pressure to low pressure is called?
Law of diffusion
118
If these is more space in the lungs this means?
Increase volume decrease pressure (Boyles law)
119
During Expiration what occurs?
1) Elasticity of lung recoils inwards
2) Passive process
3) Decrease space
4) Decrease volume
5) Increase pressure
6) Air goes out of lungs
120
there is a ballon surrounding the lungs what is the name of the wall of the ballon that is in contact with the lungs?
Visceral pleura
121
there is a ballon surrounding the lungs what is the name of the inside of the ballon that is surrounding the lungs?
intrapleural fluid
122
there is a ballon surrounding the lungs what is the name of the wall of the ballon on the outside (outer most layer)?
Parietal pleura
123
What produces fluid that remains in the in the ballon surrounding the lungs?
Pleura
124
What is the function of the pleura?
To lubricate the lungs to prevent friction while breathing
125
This is an infection or inflammation of the pleura ofter results from pneumonia. This results in a roughening of the pleura, which creates friction and a stabbing pain with each breath. this causes a build up of fluid and hinders breathing.
Pleurisy
126
What is the pressure in the pleural cavity called?
Intrapleural pressure (Pip)
127
If Pip=Palv what happens to the lungs?
They will collapse
128
What is the disease associate with the lungs collapsing normally due to air enters the plural space?
Pneumothorax
129
what is the transmural pressure that governs the static properties of the lungs?
Transpulmonary pressure
130
What means "across a wall" and is represented by the pressure in the inside of the structure (Pi) minus the pressure outside the structure (Po)
transmural
(inflation of a ballon-like structure like the lungs requires an increase in the transmural pressure such that Pi increases relative to Po)
131
Inspiration is a _____________ process
Active process (requires ATP)
-Quiet
132
Expiration is a _____________ process
Passive (doesn't require ATP)
133
this is inverse to STIFFNESS, if this becomes high the easier it is to EXPAND the lungs at any given change in transpulmonary pressure
lung compliance
(the high the compliance the less stiff and more expansion)
134
The type II alveolar cells secrete the detergent-like substance known as ______________
surfactant
135
What is the effect of surfactant on lung compliance and surface tension?
1) Increases
2) Lowers
136
this is a huge problem for premature babies whose type II cells are not mature enough to produce this. This is known as infant respiratory distress syndrome (IRDS) or as respiratory distress syndrome of the newborn (RDSN)
lack of surfactant
137
What can cause STIFFN lung and impair compliance of the lungs?
Fibrosis or Silicosis
138
Asthma is a disease characterized by intermittent episodes in which airway smooth muscle contracts strongly, markedly _______________________
increasing airway resistance
139
The basic defect in asthma is ___________________________, the cause of which vary form person to person and include, among other: allergy, viral infections, and sensitivity to environmental factors
chronic inflammation of the airways
140
The underlying inflammation makes the airway smooth muscle ______________ and causes it to contract strongly in response to such things as exercise.
Hyperresponsive
141
what are some treatments for asthma?
1) reduce inflammation and airway hyperrespinsiceness with anti-inflammatory drugs (Leukotriene inhibitors and inhaled glucocorticoids)
2) Bronchodilator drugs
142
What is caused by destruction and collapse of the smaller airways?
Emphysema
143
What is caused by excessive mucus production in the lungs?
Chronic bronchitis
144
What measures different lung volumes?
Spirometer
145
What is the amount of air inhaled or exhaled in one breath called on a spirometer?
Tidal volume (TV)
146
What is the amount of air in excess of tidal inspiration can be inhaled with maximum effort called?
Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)
147
This is the amount of air in excess of tidal expiration that can be exhaled with maximum effort?
Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)
148
What is the amount of air that can be exhaled with maximum effort after maximum inspiration (TV+IRV+ERV); used to assess strength of thoracic muscle as well as pulmonary function?
Vital capacity (VC)
149
This is found in conducting airways (there is a certain volume in the conducting airways that is left over from the proceeding breath) what is this called?
Anatomical Dead space
150
Explain local control of ventilation (V)
1) Decreased airflow to region of lung
2) Pulmonary blood decrease PO2
3) Vasoconstriction of pulmonary vessels (this is also called HYPOXIC Vaso-constriction
4) Decreased blood flow
5) Local perfusion decreased to match a local decrease in ventilation
6) Diversion of blood flow and airflow away from local area of disease to healthy area of the lungs
151
Explain local control of perfusion (Q)
1) Decreased blood flow to region of lung
2) Alveoli ( decrease PCO2)
3) Bronchoconstriction
4) Decreased airflow
5) Local perfusion decreased to match a local decrease in ventilation
6) Diversion of blood flow and airflow away from local area of disease to healthy area of the lungs
152
Hb binds to oxygen this happen at the pulmonary end what is this called?
Loading
153
Tissues needs oxygen for cellular respiration Hb lets go of oxygen; systemic capillaries. What is this called?
Unloading
154
What converts CO2 and H2O into bicarbonate and also does the reverse?
Carbon Anhydrase
155
1) Systemic tissue: CO2 produced
2) CO2 goes into RBCs
3) Carbon Anhydrase converts CO2+H2O into biocarbonate
4) Bicarbonate is then released into the plasma
what is this whole process called?
Chloride shift
156
1) Lung end: Bicarbonate moves from plasma into the RBCs
2) Bicarbonate is converted into CO2 and H2O by Carbon Anhydrase (CA)
3) CO2 is sent into alveolus for expiration
What is this process called?
Reverse Chloride shift
157
What is it called when the binding site on Hb is full of O2?
Saturation
158
As the partial pressure of O2 decreases the ....
O2 dissociates from Hb
159
what happen to the Hemoglobin curve there is an increase in CO2?
Increase acidity causes a shift right (which means a unloading oxygen)
160
what happen to the Hemoglobin curve there is an increase in Temp?
Causes a shift right (which means a unloading of oxygen)
161
What forms DPG and how does an increase in DPG affect the hemoglobin curve?
1) Glycolysis: Which means the tissue will need more oxygen causing a release of oxygen from hemoglobin
2) This will cause a shift right to the curve (meaning an unloading of Oxygen)
162
What binds to hemoglobin with a higher affinity Oxygen or CO?
Carbon monoxide (CO)
163
If there is an increase in CO carbon monoxide in the blood what happens to the hemoglobin curve?
Shift left (decrease release of O2)
164
What part of the brain help control breathing?
Medulla oblongata
165
(Important)
Hypoventilation can cause
respiratory acidosis
(less breathing causes more acidity in the blood)
**remember this is the respiratory system**
166
(important) Hypreventilation causes
Respiratory alkalosis (Decrease in CO2)
**remember this is the respiratory system**
167
Loss of bicarbonate ions causes?
Metabolic acidosis
(this is dealing with the kidney)
168
Excess of bicarbonate ions causes?
Metabolic alkalosis
(this is dealing with the kidney)
169
What does the kidney release to increase blood pressure?
Renin
170
Nephrons are associates with 2 sets of capillaries:
1) Glomerular
2) Peritubular
171
The glomerular capillaries are specialized for?
Filtration
172
The glomerulus is _______________ which allows large amount of solutes to pass (but large proteins cannot pass)
Fenestrated
173
The inner layer of the glomerular capsule contains highly modified branching epithelial cells called?
Podocytes
174
What terminates in foot processes which surround the basement membrane of the glomerulus? The cleft between the foot processes are called?
Podocytes
filtration slits
175
In the arteriole wall the granular cells (______________________) are enlarged smooth muscle cells that have secretory granules which contain the enzyme ________________ that raise blood pressure
1) Juxtaglomerular/ JG cells
2) Renin
176
Where are the Juxtaglomerular cells found?
Afferent arteriole
177
Where are the Macula Densa cells found?
Distal tubule (they are salt sensors)
178
Dysfunction in the filtration process can lead to red blood cells in the urine (______________) or protein in the urine (______________)
1) hematuria
2) Proteinuria
179
What is the pressure in the bowmans capsule called?
1) fluid pressure
2) osmotic pressure
180
What is the pressure called in the arterial forcing substances into the bowmans capsule called?
Glomerular capillary pressure
181
What are the 3 regulations of the GFR?
1) Autoregulation (intrinsic mechanism)
2) Sympathetic (extrinsic mechanism)
3) Hormonal regulation (extrinsic mechanism): RAS and ANP
182
If the efferent arteriole constricts what happens to GC and GFR?
increases
increases
183
If the afferent arteriole constricts what happens to GC and GFR?
Decrease
Decrease
184
If the efferent arteriole dilates what happens to GC and GFR?
Decreases
Decreases
185
If the afferent arteriole dialates what happens to GC and GFR?
Increases
increases
186
What is the function of aldosterone?
Increase sodium reabsorption
187
What is the function fo ADH?
Promotes water reabsorption
188
Descending loop is only permeable to?
Water
189
Ascending loop is only permeable to?
sodium
190
The _______________ is why untreated diabetic patients have glucose in there urine
Transport maximum
191
