Exam 3 Flashcards
MASTER (99 cards)
1
Q
Syntax is what?
A
Study of phrase and sentence structure
2
Q
Phrases and sentences have?
A
hierarchical structure
- in theory they are infinitely long
3
Q
Syntactic infinity
A
- finite set of sounds in a language
- finite number of words in a language
- infinite number of creatable sentences
4
Q
Patterns and rules of sentences
A
- sentences formed by predictable patterns
5
Q
Grammatical categories
A
- found only in certain combinations
- grammatical categories = word classes = parts of speech
6
Q
Nouns are…
A
Person, Place, or Thing
7
Q
Verbs are…
A
Action, Event, State of being
8
Q
Adjectives are…
A
Quality, Quantity, Extent
9
Q
whats the best way to define a given word?
A
consider structure and function relative to what is around it.
Structure: refers to morphology
Function: refers to syntax
10
Q
Nouns derivational affixes
A
-ness, -ity, -ation, -ion, -ment, -dom, -s
11
Q
corresponding determiners that nouns typically follow
A
That, The, A, An
12
Q
Nouns follow adjectives that modify them (examples are…)
A
Big, Expensive
13
Q
Verbs derivational affixes
A
-ize, -ify, -s, -es, -ed, -d
14
Q
what do verbs typically appear after?
A
the subject of a sentence
15
Q
what do verbs typically appear before?
A
The direct object.
16
Q
what word is the verb in this sentence: “The linguist cooked the noodle
A
cooked
17
Q
There are some derivational affixes that create verbs (Adjectives) and examples of these are…
A
-ish, -ous, -able, -ful
18
Q
comparative/superelative adjectives are….
A
-er, -est
19
Q
what do adjectives typically precede?
A
The noun it modifies
- ex. The beautiful cat
20
Q
what can adjectives appear after?
A
The copula verb “be”.
ex. The cat is alive
21
Q
adverbs common suffix
A
-ly
ex. quick-ly, sad-ly, odd-ly, moth-ly
22
Q
Adverbs typically modify what?
A
A verb or an adjective
- ex. Maria runs fast
- ex. The enormously complicated problem
23
Q
what are some characteristics of common categories for nouns?
A
- common: dog, book, laptop
- proper: John, Kenji Oda, Syracuse University
- abstract: Information, reality
Pronouns, she, they, I, us
24
Q
What are some characteristics of common categories for nouns?
A
- Main/lexical: eat, sleep, write
- auxiliary (helping): must, will, have (as in he has eaten), be
25
what are some characteristics of common categories for adjectives?
Attributes, qualities
26
What are some characteristics of common categories of adverbs?
manner, time, place, reason
27
Determiners are what class?
a closed class
28
Determiners definite vs indefinite.
definite: the
indefinite: a, an
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Determiners: demonstratives, quantifiers, numerals, possessive pronouns, some question words.
Demonstratives: this, that, these, those
Quantifiers: all, every, some, most, many, no, any
Numerals: one, two, three....
Possessive pronouns: my, your, his, her, our...
Some question words: whose, which
30
Prepositions are what class and how many items?
Closed class of 70 items
31
Prepositions typically indicate what? and are followed by?
- Something about location or path of action
- followed by a noun (english)
ex. to, from, under, oven, after, through, near, on, off, for, in, into, during, across...
32
Conjunctions do what?
- Connect two categories of the same type
- and, or, but, nor are all conjunctions
ex. Jack AND Jill went up the hill
ex. SU OR Georgetown will win the tournament
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Complementizers do what?
Connect one sentence inside another.
- that, if, whether, and a "null" complementizer
ex. I think [THAT you should study for your exam]
ex. I wonder [IF you studied for it]
34
Phase structure rules:
- S(subject) -> N V
N = alice
V = sighed
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More complex sentence structures
- S -> (DET) N V ((DET) N)
3 part:
DET = the
N = girl
V = sighed
5 part:
DET = the
N = girl
V = saw
DET = the
N = dog
36
What are constituents?
- group of words that work together as a single unit (Phrase) within a sentence.
37
Improved sentence structures:
S -> NP VP
NP = (DET) N
VP =V (NP)
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Modeling the sentence steps
1. identify grammatical categories
2. identify NPs: NP -> (DET) N
3. Identify the VP: VP -> V (NP)
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Modeling the sentence example: The cat chased the raccoon
S -> NP VP
NP = (DET) N -> The(DET) cat(N)
VP = V (NP) -> chased(V) the(DET) raccoon(N)
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Adjective and adverb phrases
adjectives and adverbs can be modified by degree words (DEG) to form a constituent
-> AdjP -> (DEG) ADJ [He was a VERY HAPPY person]
-> AdvP -> (DEG) ADV [He ran VERY FAST]
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Syntactic Trees (complex example: That very small dog on the porch quietly slept)
S -> NP VP
- NP -> (DET) (AdjP) N (PP)
- AdjP -> (DEG) ADJ
- PP -> P NP
- VP -> (AdvP) V (NP) (PP)
- AdvP -> (DEG) ADV
Example: That(DET) very(DEG) small(ADJ) dog(N) on(P) the(DET) porch(N) quietly(ADV) slept(V)
42
A preposition and an embedded sentence form what?
A constituent
- VP -> V (COMP) S [John thinks that syntax is interesting)
43
ability to create infinitely many sentences is called what? example of it and its rules?
Recursion
ex.
- NP -> (DET) (AdjP) N (PP)
- PP -> P NP
44
Sherlock saw the man with binoculars sentence break down.
S -> NP VP
- NP -> N = Sherlock
- VP -> V = saw, NP -> DET = the, N = man, PP -> P = with, NP -> N = binoculars.
45
Pragmatics are....
study of meaning in context
46
Semantics is....
The formal study of meaning (independent of context)
- speaker meaning = domain of pragmatics
- literal meaning = domain of semantics
47
Word are conventional signs, meaning....
arbitrary sequence of sounds connected to a mutually agreed upon meaning.
48
what does it mean for a word to mean something?
Meaning must involve a connection between language and something other than language.
49
Cognitive approach of a word meaning something
- language connects with concepts & ideas in the mind
- meanings associated with mental representations
50
referential approach of a word meaning something
- language connects with the world
- a word points to real world things
51
How do the meanings of words combine to make new meanings?
1. what individual words mean.
2. how words combine to create new, complex meanings.
3. How the truth of a statement logically follows from the principles of composition
52
what is a semantic model?
- Simplified sketch of the world and contains:
1. a few individuals
2. a few properties that these individuals can have
53
what does a verb point to in the world?
A property
- a property is something that holds of an individual or doesn't
- thus, verbs point to all individuals who have specific property
54
Conjunctions examples
and, or, ...
55
Quantifiers are...
every, some, no, ....
56
L1 language aquisition
- process of acquiring a language as a child
- does not involve: imitation, reinforcement, explicit instruction
- subconscious
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L2 language acquisition
- learning involves conscious gaining of knowledge
- second languages are learned
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Poverty of Stimulus
- language learners devise a grammar based on input they receive
- BUT, the input received doesn't give learners enough info to work out all properties of language
59
Innateness hypothesis
- would account for why certain types of errors that children never make
- explain why first language acquisition is quick and mostly unconscious
- acquisition occurs despite poverty of the stimulus
60
Children have Grammars
- in learning the adult language, children create their own language
- phonological, morphological, and syntactic errors children make are highly predictable
61
L1 acquisition research
- by 6 months, infants can:
- perceive contrastive sounds of their language
- recognize some words, including their own name
- by 9 months
- recognize phonological processes in their language
- perceive words as units
62
3 stages of speech production in the first year
1. crying (from birth)
2. cooing (2 months)
3. babbling (6 months)
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Stage 1 of speech production
1. crying (from birth)
- first pre-language communication
- for discomfort or hunger
- babies need control of 3 ingredients: speech rhythm, pitch, volume
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Stage 2 of speech production
2. cooing (2 months)
- not actual sounds of target language
- infants are acquiring turn-taking, gesturing, and interactional cues
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Stage 3 of speech production
3. babbling (6 months)
- sounds used are closer to sounds of target language
- by 12 months, children begin to produce individual words of target language
66
L2 acquisition: Critical Period Hypothesis
- window of time for language acquisition after which native-like proficiency is rarely achieved
67
Critical Period Hypothesis - Genie
Genie is the pseudonym of a child who was abused and kept in a small room with no opportunity to hear human speech between the ages of 2 & 13
68
Factors Affecting L2 Acquisition
- age
- attitude
- motivation
- cognitive style
- personality
69
how age affects L2 acquisition
- final stage of acquisition of a pre-puberty L2 learner is closer to that of native speaking than post-puberty learner
70
How Attitude affects L2 Acquisition
- Can be toward:
- L2 itself
- Speakers of the L2
- Language-learning, in general
71
How Motivation affects L2 acquisition
- intrinsic motivation: driven by inner goals
- extrinsic motivation: driven by external goals
72
How cognitive style affects L2 acquisition
- cognitive styles reflect general ways in which people process info
- someone with field independent cognitive style approaches problems holistically (whole instead of sub-parts)
73
How personality influences L2 acquisition
- lack of inhibition, extroversion, and even gregariousness, may lead to more participation in the L2 and result in greater proficiency
74
What do L2 learners do?
- Since the grammar is different from both the L1 and L2, it is called interlanguage grammar.
75
What is the use of features from L1 in the interlanguage called and what are its types?
Transfer, and the types are...
- positive transfer: the correct use of L1 structures in the L2
- negative transfer: incorrect use of L1 structures that are different in the L2
76
Bilingual acquisition
simultaneous acquisition of more than one L1
77
What is codeswitching?
switching between two languages in one conversation
78
Sociolinguistic variation
- different ways of doing the same thing in the same language, which alternate with one another in the speech of individuals
79
Linguistic variables (under sociolinguistic variation)
- two or more ways of saying the same thing
80
Facts about sociolinguistic variation
1. variation is everywhere
- language in constant state of flux
2. Variation is systematic
- system of rules that underlies realization of all linguistic variables
81
William Labov's studies of linguistic styles
The sociolinguistic interview
82
Sociolinguistic interview (Labov's 5 different tasks in sociolinguistic interview) #1- Minimal pair list (MP)
1. minimal pair list (MP)
- read a list of words organized into minimal pairs, differing respect to some sociolinguistic variable
83
Sociolinguistic interview (Labov's 5 different tasks in sociolinguistic interview) #2-Word list(WL)
2. Word List(WL)
- read a list of words, randomly ordered
- when being recorded by a linguist, people focus mostly on pronunciation
84
Sociolinguistic interview (Labov's 5 different tasks in sociolinguistic interview) #3- Reading passage (RP)
3. Reading passage (RP)
- Read a paragraph of connected speech
- requirement of reading coherently deflects some focus from pronunciation to the content of the passage
85
Sociolinguistic interview (Labov's 5 different tasks in sociolinguistic interview) #4- Interview style
4. Interview style
- an interviewer asks a range of directed question to the speaker, speaker provides answers
- more focused on content than reading passage
86
Sociolinguistic interview (Labov's 5 different tasks in sociolinguistic interview) #5-casual speech
5. Casual Speech
- unmonitored speech. The data sine qua non in sociolinguistics
- Taps into vernacular speech
87
Labov's deparment store survey
- conducted november 1962
- published 1966
- rapid & anonymous (observe use of language in context outside of interview)
- speakers all had same occupation
88
Method of department store survey
Rapid anonymous survey
- interview approaches speaker in the role of a customer asking for directions to a department on fourth floor
89
Specifics of department store survey
- each interaction results in 4 tokens:
- 2 casually spoken tokens, 2 spoken with emphasis
- 264 total speakers
- 68 from Saks
- 125 from Macy's
- 71 from Kleins
- took note of age, sex, race, any trace of ESL/regional accent
90
Implicature
- involves something that the speaker suggests or hints at with an utterance
- context dependent
91
examples of implicature
1. It's 12:35
- context 1: Your LIN 201 classmate says hi to you
- context 2: you usually eat around 12:30
2. I have a quiz tomorrow
- context 1: your friends invited you to a party
- context 2: you look a little exhausted
92
What does context include in implicature
- who made the utterance?
- who is the hearer?
- when was it said?
- and other shared background information
93
Can implicature be evaluated as true or false?
NO!
94
Sentential ambiguity examples
- "I saw a man with binoculars"
- "John likes his boss, and Peter does, too"
95
Lexical Ambiguity examples
- "I saw bats"
- "I have five bucks"
96
Positive politeness in linguistics
- appeals to unity or closeness between individuals
- "Since we all want to stay healthy, let's be sure to wear out masks."
97
Negative politeness in linguistics
- appeals to hearer's autonomy/freedom
- "I know it's a pain, but can you please put on your mask?"
98
Distance
- Implicature, ambiguity, and politeness are used to protect the face of speaker or hearer - "save-face" is a good example
- also involved in reflecting/manipulating distance between speaker & hearer
99
Important tool(s) for constructing distance is...
- With pronouns, as these create/emphasize in-group vs. out-group membership
- ex. I, we, one, you, it, he/she, they
- ex. my, our, your, his/her, their, ...etc.
- these increase in distance from left to right
