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exam 3 Flashcards

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1
Q
  1. What is the role of epidemiology in policy development?
A

Application of epidemiologic methods to justify policies, assess effectiveness, collect objective data.

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2
Q
  1. Which of the following is not a typical role for epidemiologists in policy-making?

A) Performing research and sharing results
B) Offering expert testimony
C) Making political decisions about laws
D) Advocating for specific health initiatives
E) Contributing expertise to legal proceedings
F) Joining policy-making bodies that have expertise in public health issues

A

Making political decisions about laws

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3
Q
  1. Define the term “health policy.”
A

Policy concerning healthcare services, dentistry, medicine, or public health.

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4
Q

What is the difference between policy and law?

A

Law is a binding set of rules enforced by the gov., whereas policy is a course of action for the government,a political party, or a business to influence decisions/actions

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5
Q
  1. Which is an example of a health policy? A) Requiring motorcycle helmets
    B) Lowering income taxes
    C) Regulating international trade agreements
    D) None of the above
A

A) Requiring motorcycle helmets

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6
Q
  1. Describe two examples of how health policy and law interact.
A

Answer:
Examples: Licensing medical practitioners; regulating allowable contaminants in food.

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7
Q
  1. List the five stages of the policy cycle in order.
A

Problem Definition

Agenda Setting

Policy Establishment

Policy Implementation

Policy Assessment

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8
Q
  1. Which phase of the policy cycle involves evaluating if the policy has achieved its goals?A) Problem Definition
    B) Policy Implementation
    C) Policy Assessment/Eval
    D) Agenda Setting
A

C) Policy Assessment

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9
Q

Which phase of the policy cycle involves focusing on achieving the objectives established in the policy decision?

A) Policy Estbalishment
B) Policy Implementation
C) Policy Assessment/Eval
D) Agenda Setting

A

B)Policy Implementation

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10
Q

Which phase of the policy cycle involves the formal adoption of policies, programs and procedures that are designed to protect society from public health hazards?

A) Problem Definition
B) Policy Implementation
C) Policy Assessment/Eval
D)Policy Establishment

A

D) Policy Establishment

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11
Q

Which phase of the policy cycle involves mapping out the process of defining the issues for which policy actors feel policies are needed?

A) Problem Definition
B) Policy Implementation
C) Policy Assessment/Eval
D)Policy Establishment

A

A) Problem Definition

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12
Q

Which phase of the policy cycle involves Settingpriorities, deciding at what time to deal with a public health problem or issue, and determining who will deal with the
problem?

A) Problem Definition
B) Policy Implementation
C) Policy Assessment/Eval
D) Agenda Setting

A

D) Agenda Setting

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13
Q

What are the challenges associated w/ each phase of the policy cycle?

A

Problem Definition: poorly defined problems

Agenda setting: lack of info on risk/lack of coordination

Policy establishment: inability to coordinate and assses research information

Policy implementation: lack of gov support

policy eval: lack of sound scientific data

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14
Q

What is the most improtant phase in the policy cycle?

A

problem definition

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15
Q
  1. Define “policy actor”, “stakeholder”, and “interest group”
    Explain the difference.
A

Policy actor: involved in formulating policy.
Stakeholder: individuals, organizations, and gov. officials who are affected by policy decisions.

Interest Group: “Non-profit and
Usually a voluntary organization
who have a common cause to influence the public
policy, without seeking political
control

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16
Q

What is evidence-based health?

A

Adoption of policies, laws, and
programs that are supported by
empirical data

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17
Q
  1. What is the importance of evidence in health policy development?
A

Policies should be based on empirical data and evidence to ensure effectiveness.

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18
Q
  1. Cost-effectiveness analysis compares:
    A) Exposure risks and benefits
    B) Costs and outcomes of interventions
    C) Research priorities and funding sources
    D) Political feasibility of a policy
A

B) Costs and outcomes of interventions

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19
Q

Define risk

A

likelihood of experiencing an adverse effect

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20
Q
  1. Name and describe the four steps of risk assessment.
A

Hazard Identification
-Evaluation of the
evidence that links
exposure to an agent
with the toxicity

Dose-Response Assessment
-Measurement of the
relationship between
the amount of exposure
and the occurrence of
the unwanted health
effects

Exposure Assessment
- Identifies and describes
the population that is
exposed to a toxicant.

Risk Characterization
-Estimation of the number of
excess unwarranted health events
expected at different time
intervals at each level of
exposure.

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21
Q
  1. Which step in risk assessment measures how much exposure causes health effects?
    A) Hazard Identification
    B) Exposure Assessment
    C) Dose-Response Assessment
    D) Risk Characterization
A

C) Dose-Response Assessment

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22
Q
  1. List three examples of public health-related laws mentioned in the slides.
A

Smoke-free venues

Child safety seat requirements

Regulating nutritional content of foods

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23
Q
  1. List reasons why ethics are important in epidemiologic research.
A

Promote knowledge and truth

Foster trust, fairness, and accountability

Protect public welfare and research subjects

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24
Q
  1. In the Tuskegee Syphilis Study, what ethical principles were violated?
A

Lack of informed consent

Withholding of treatment

Racial discrimination and injustice

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25
16. what are the ethical guidelines for epidemiologists?
A)Submitting studies for ethical review B) Minimizing risks and protecting welfare of subjects C) ensuring equitable distributions of risks and benefits D) Ensuring informed consent E) Meeting obligations to communities f) maintaining public trust
26
17. Define infectious (communicable) disease and give two examples of agents.
Answer: Diseases caused by infectious agents like bacteria or viruses. Examples: COVID-19, Measles.
27
18. The epidemiologic triangle consists of: A) Agent, Environment, Vector B) Agent, Host, Environment C) Host, Environment, Pathogen D) Vector, Host, Environment
B) Agent, Host, Environment
28
Define agent, host and environment
Agent: A factor (e.g., a microorganism, chemical substance, or form of radiation…) whose presence, excessive presence, or (in deficiency diseases) relative absence is essential for the occurrence of a disease” Host: A person or other living animal, including birds and arthropods, that affords subsistence or lodgment to an infectious agent under natural condition Environment : Domain outside of the individual human host in which disease- causing agents may exist, survive, or originate.
29
What is the natural Hx of a disease?
Healthy--> disease onset--> symptoms---> healthcare seeking--> Dx--> Tx---> cure, control disability death
30
19. Differentiate between infectivity, pathogenicity, and virulence.
Infectivity: ability to enter and multiply in the host. Pathogenicity: ability to cause disease symptoms. Virulence: severity of the disease (whether the disease has sever clinical manifestations or is fatal in large number of cases)
31
20. What is a "toxin"? Give one example.
Answer: Toxic substance produced by living organisms. Example: Botulinum toxin (botulism).
32
21. Explain "herd immunity" in one or two sentences.
When a large proportion of a community is immune, protecting the whole population against infection.
33
22. What is an "index case" in outbreak investigation?
First identified case of a disease outbreak.
34
The external environment comprises?
Physical ▪ Climatologic ▪ Biologic ▪ Social ▪ Economic
35
23. A reservoir is best defined as: A) A place where toxic chemicals are dumped B) A location where infectious agents (humans, insects,soils, plants) normally live and multiply C) The host’s immune system D) The point of exposure
B) A location where infectious agents (humans, insects soils, plants) normally live and multiply
36
24. What is Zoonosis? List two examples of zoonotic diseases.
An infection or infectious agent transmissible under natural conditions from vertebrate animals to humans.” Examples: Rabies, Ebola.
37
What is direct transmission?
person-to-person contact
38
25. Which of the following is an example of indirect transmission? A) Shaking hands B) Inhaling airborne particles C) Sexual contact D) Direct animal bite
B) Inhaling airborne particles
39
Define emerging infectious diseases
“An infectious disease that has newly appeared in a population or that has been known for some time but is rapidly increasing in incidence or geographic range” ▪ Examples: Ebola virus disease, MPox (formerly monkeypox),
40
26. List the five main steps for investigating an infectious disease outbreak.
Define the problem Establish the existence of an outbreak by comparing current case numbers to expected numbers Appraise the data Collect and analyze data from clinical observations, epidemic curves, incubation periods, attack rates, and case mapping Formulate a hypothesis Develop hypotheses about the source and mode of transmission of the disease. Confirm the hypothesis Test the hypotheses through analytical studies (e.g., case-control or cohort studies) Draw conclusions and recommend solutions Draw conclusions based on the data and hypothesis testing and develop recommendations for preventing future outbreaks.
41
27. Define "epidemic curve" and explain its use in outbreak investigation.
A graph showing cases by time of onset; helps visualize outbreak patterns and timing.
42
28. What is the difference between a common-source and a point-source epidemic?
Common-source: prolonged exposure to a common factor. Point-source: single, brief exposure within one incubation period.
43
29. The attack rate is calculated using which formula? A) (Exposed ÷ Total population) *100 B) (Ill ÷ (Ill + Well)) *100 C) (Deaths ÷ Exposed) *100 D) (Cases ÷ Total risk population) *10,000
B) (Ill ÷ (Ill + Well)) *100
44
30. What defines an emerging infectious disease? Give two examples.
A disease newly appearing or rapidly increasing. Examples: Ebola, Mpox.
45
31. Name one reason why infectious diseases remain a threat today.
New pathogen mutations and antibiotic resistance.
46
1. What is the main purpose of screening?
Using tests or other procedures to identify unrecognized diseases in apparently healthy individuals.
47
2. Name two examples of mass screening and two examples of selective screening. what is the difference? what is better
Mass: screening an entire population Newborn screening, employee drug tests. Selective: testing a specific population. (Selective screening is more likely to yield. true case and be most economically efficient) STD screening, screening smokers for lung disease.
48
3. What makes a screening test appropriate to use?
condition screened needs to be Important high prevalence effective treatment/ intervention available high cost-benefit ratio screening tests must be a reliable and valid test.
49
4. What is the difference between sensitivity and specificity?
Sensitivity = ability to correctly identify those with disease. Specificity = ability to correctly identify those without disease.
50
5. What bias makes it seem like survival improves with early detection, even if it doesn’t?
Lead-time bias.
51
What is length bias?
when screening is more likely to detect slow growing diseases/less aggresive forms that have a long phase without symptoms
52
Differentiate between primary, secondary and tertiary prevention:
Primary: involves the prevention of disease before it occurs; - e.g: immunization, seatbelts Secondary: takes place during the early phases of pathogenesis and includes activities that limit the progression of disease. Tertiary: is directed toward the later stages of pathogenesis and includes programs for restoring thepatient’s optimal functioning; examples are physical therapy for stroke victims and fitness programs for recovering heart attack patients.
53
What is the difference between prepathogenesis vs pathogenesis when does the disease and symptoms start i the natural history of a disease?
Prepathogenesis: time period in natural history of disease before the disease agent interesacted with host Pathogensis: occurs after the agent has interacted with a host. The disease starts after prepathogenesis and the symptoms start after early pathogenesis at the beginning of late pathogenesis.
54
What type of prevention is screening?
secondary
55
Differentiate between reliability and validy? optimal test results?
Reliability is synonymous with preision where measuring instrument provided consistent results w/ repeated trials Validity: is the ability of the test to give the correct measurement (accuracy) good accuracy and good reliability(bullseye)
56
6. How is Positive Predictive Value (PPV) calculated?
TP / all people who were screened positive (TP + FP) × 100
57
7. . How is Negative Predictive Value (NPV) calculated?
TN / all ppl who were screened negative (TN + FN) × 100
58
8. Why can screening sometimes cause harm?
False positives cause anxiety; overdiagnosis may lead to unnecessary treatments.
59
1. What is the difference between social epidemiology and behavioral epidemiology?
Behavioral epidemiology focuses on unhealthy behaviors affecting health. Social epidemiology focuses on social factors/ support affecting health.
60
What are the social determinants of health
neighborhood and build environement, healthcare access and quality, social and community context, economic stsability, educaiton and acess and quality
61
3. Define "stress" in a health context.
Stress is a physical, chemical, or emotional factor causing mental or bodily tension, influencing disease risk.
62
4. What are common symptoms of PTSD?
Flashbacks, bad dreams, emotional numbness, feeling “on edge.”
63
5. How does social support impact health during stress?
Improves coping, self-esteem, and reduces risk of mental and physical illness.
64
What is development analysis?
Development of a set of possible choices and stating the likely outcomes linked with those choices, each of which may have associated risks and benefits.
65
What social factors/lifestyle practices contribute to health?
Tobacco use including vaping ▪ Excessive alcohol consumption ▪ Substance abuse ▪ Sedentary habits ▪ Stress
66
6. What health risks are associated with secondhand smoke?
Disease and premature death in nonsmokers (children and adults).
67
7. Describe trends in alcohol consumption in the U.S. during COVID-19.
Alcohol-related death rates rose significantly, partially due to pandemic-related stress.
68
8. What is the relationship between obesity and chronic disease?
Obesity increases the risk of chronic diseases such as heart disease, diabetes, and certain cancers.
69
9. What is psychiatric epidemiology? What does it use for classification, and what variables are typically considered?
Study of the distribution and determinants of mental health disorders in populations. Uses the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition (DSM-5) for diagnostic and classification Variables include age, sex, and other sociodemographic factors.

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