Exam 3 Flashcards
(156 cards)
1
Q
What are the 3 types of pain
A
inflammatory, neuropathic, nociceptive
2
Q
Inflammatory pain
A
cause by damage to tissue or inflammation of joints or by tumor cells
3
Q
Neuropathic pain
A
caused by lesions or other damage to the nervous system (ex. carpal tunnel, brain damage from stroke)
4
Q
Nociceptive pain
A
pain caused by activation of receptors in the skin called nocicpetors
5
Q
Nociceptors
A
specialized cell receptors that respond to tissue damage or potential damage
6
Q
What is the direct pathway model of pain? What evidence led researchers to question this model of pain perception?
A
This model says that pain occurs when specific nociceptor receptors in the skin are stimulated and send their signals directly from the skin to the brain. Researchers started questioning this when pain was noted to be affected by factors in addition to stimulation of the skin.
7
Q
What is the gate control model of pain?
A
In this model there are additional pathways that influence the signals sent from the spinal cord to the brain. Nociceptors, mechanoreceptors, and central control impact the transmission cell that “creates” pain.
8
Q
How do nociceptors impact the gate control model of pain?
A
They send excitatory signals to the transmission cell (causing pain). Excitatory signals from the neurons in the dorsal horn “open the gate” and increase the firing of the transmission cells (more pain).
9
Q
Mechanoreceptors
A
specialized cell receptors that respond to non-painful tactile stimulation
10
Q
How do mechanoreceptors impact the gate control model of pain?
A
When activity in the mechanoreceptors reach the dorsal horn inhibitory signals “close the gate” and decrease the firing of the transmission cells (less/no pain).
11
Q
Central control
A
information related to cognitive functions such as expectation, attention, and distraction
12
Q
How does central control impact the gate control model of pain?
A
Similar to mechanoreceptors, activity coming down from the brain also closes the gate and decreases transmission cell activity, thus decreasing pain.
13
Q
Give an example of when expectation influenced pain
A
the placebo effect makes a patient expect some sort of medical relief, thus creating relief completely or partially. An interesting fact about placebos is that they can attach themselves to particular parts of the body (meaning your hand can be in pain while your foot is impacted by a placebo)
14
Q
Give an example of when shifting attention influenced pain
A
not feeling pain until you see the blood, or playing a video game while changing the bandages of burn victims.
15
Q
Give an example of when emotional distraction influenced pain
A
showing pictures of positive actions (playing sports) vs. negative actions (breaking a leg) impact the way a person feels as they stick their hand in a bucket of cold water.
16
Q
Pain matrix
A
subcortical structors (hypothalamus, amygdala, thalamus, and areas of the cortex: somatosensory cortex/S1, anterior cingulate cortex/ACC, the prefrontal cortex/PFC, and the insula)
17
Q
Describe the multimodal nature of pain
A
Pain is made up of both sensory (throbbing, dull, prickly) and emotional/affective (torturing, annoying, sickening) experiences
18
Q
Pain
A
an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience
19
Q
Opiods
A
chemicals such as opium and heroin that impact pain perception and attach themselves to receptor sites. These receptor sites are the same receptors that are activated by endorphines
20
Q
Endorphines
A
endogenous (naturally occurring) morphine
21
Q
Explain how people are impacted by watching other people being touched/hurt/etc.
A
Empathetic people are more likely to experience more pain while watching someone else in pain than people who are not classified as highly empathetic
22
Q
What is the relation between heat and cold receptors–do we use the same receptors to sense both heat and cold?
A
We use thermo-receptors to feel temperature. They do not respond to anything other than temp. And there a different receptors for each. These receptors can feel radiant and touched temp.
23
Q
Where are thermo-receptors located?
A
embedded in the epidermis and dermis
24
Q
Where do the heat receptors project to? Where do the cold receptors project to?
A
Heat is projected to S1 and cold is projected to SII.
25
As the temperature increases, what happens to the response of a heat receptors? As the temperature decreases, what happens to the response of a cold receptors?
1) increase firing rate as temperature rises or falls ( at least to a certain extent)
2) continue to fire so long as high/low temperature remains
3) decreases firing rate as temperature decreased/increased
26
What is naloxone? How is it used in relation to pain?
A medical drug that is often injected into a person who has overdosed on heroin. It can almost immediately reverse the effects because it attached to the receptor sites that are usually occupied by heroin and blocks the action of the drug.
27
Describe the phantom limb phenomenon in relation to pain
People who have had a limb amputated can often feel as though the limb is still there, as well as, continue experiencing pain in the limb. Removal of pain nerves and cells does not affect the pain, thus informing us that pain is also mental.
28
What is a T-cell (pain section)?
A transmission cell affects pain, as in the increase of activity of a t-cell will result in more pain while a decrease in activity reduces pain.
29
Explain the mirror box treatment associated with phantom limb pain
placing your hand in a box with a mirror that gives the illusion that your other hand is in the box too is know to impact the pain associated with a clenched fist that an amputee might be feeling from their phantom limb. Having a realistic and "perfect" set up is necessary in creating the illusion.
30
Medial lemniscal pathway to the brain
large, fast fibers that are associated with kinesthesis (limb position) and touch. This pathway projects to S1
31
Spinothalamic pathway to the brain
smaller, slower fibers that are associated with pain and temperature. This pathway projects to S1.
32
Large-diameter fibers (L-fibers)
are associated with high thresholds and sharp bursts of pain because they adapt more quickly than the slow fibers (meaning they slow back down after the pain starts). They respond to heat and pressure. Mechanoreceptors
33
Small-diameter fibers (S-fibers)
are associated with duller, throbbing, and long-lasting pain. They respond to heat, pressure, cold, and noxious chemicals. Nociceptors
34
What are some of the functions of the odor perception?
not in book
35
What is the difference between the detection threshold and the recognition threshold?
The odor detection threshold is the lowest concentration of a certain odor compound that is perceivable by the human sense of smell. Odor recognition threshold?
36
What are some factors that need to be taken into account when measuring the detection threshold and the difference threshold?
not in book
37
How well can people identify odors? What is the role of memory in odor recognition?
When we have trouble identifying odors, this trouble results not from deficiency in our olfactory system, but the inability to retrieve the odor's name from our memory
38
Olfactory Receptor Neurons
There are 350 different types of ORNs in the mucosa in humans and there are about 10,000 of each type (aka millions of ORNs. They are responsible for "coding" each smell molecule that comes in.
39
Glomeruli
small structures in the olfactory bulb that receive signals from similar olfactory receptor neurons. One function of each glomerulus is to collect information about a small group of odorants.
40
Olfactory receptors
a protein string that responds to odor stimuli
41
Olfactory bulb
the structure that receives signals directly from the olfactory receptors. The olfactory bulb contains glomeruli, which receive these signals from the receptors.
42
What is calcium imaging in regards to odor recognition?
When an olfactory receptor responds, the concentration of calcium ions increases inside the ORN. Calcium images involves soaking olfactory neurons in a chemical that causes the ORN to fluoresce with a green glow when exposed to UV light. Increased calcium decreases the glow.
43
Odorant's recognition profile
The pattern of activation for each odorant, indicating which ORNs are activated by the odorant
44
What is optical imaging in regards to odor recognition?
can be used to measure the activity of large areas of the olfactory bulb by measuring how much red light is reflected from the olfactory bulb. The area of the brain that has been activated will produce less red light.
45
Chemotopic map in olfactory
the pattern of activation in he olfactory system in which chemicals with different properties create a "map" of activation based on these properties. Also called Odor Map.
46
How have optical imaging and the 2-deoxyglucose technique been used to determine a chemotopic map on the olfactory bulb?
These imaging techniques show that certain smells are associated with certain firings from specific groups ORN's thus allowing us to map particular areas associated with different smells.
47
Perceptual map in olfactory
A map of different odor experiences arranged on the olfactory bulb. However, we are not to this point yet (and don't know if it is even possible)
48
What are the main structures in the olfactory system past the olfactory bulb?
1) the piriform cortex, which is the primary olfactory area
| 2) the orbitofrontal cortex, which is the secondary olfactory area
49
How are odors represented in the piriform cortex and how is it different from the olfactory bulb?
orderly activation pattern in the olfactory bulb no longer exists in the piriform cortex. Activity associated with a single chemical is spread out over a large area, which large spaces between active neurons.
50
What is it like when smelling something for the first time?
This can be compared to creating a new memory. You smell something and the ORNs are alerted, once you smell something again a connection between these ORNs may be present, and then after multiple encounters with the smell you may have the ability to recognize the odor.
51
Retronasal route
The opening from the oral cavity, through the nasal pharynx, into the nasal cavity. This route is the basis for the way smell combines with taste to create flavor.
52
Nasal pharynx
A passageway that connects the mouth cavity and the nasal cavity
53
Flavor
the combination of taste and smell
54
Give an example of when expectations about taste impacted taste judgements and brain response
Wine tasting based on the price of wine impacts your judgement of the taste; however, wine that has not been labeled with price is not
55
Give an example of when satiety impacted flavor
Food appears to have a better taste when you are hungry vs when you are full
56
What is the Proust effect?
the connection between taste and olfaction associated with the recall of a memory. There is a little hard evidence supporting this claim; however, we know it is true.
57
Can newborns taste?
Yes, we know this because of facial expressions. We also know that during pregnancy and during breast-feeding, a baby is influenced by the health choices that the mother makes.
58
Across-fiber patterns
the pattern of nerve firing that stimulus causes across a number if neurons. Also referred to as distributed coding.
59
Amiloride
a substance that blocks the flow of sodium into taste receptors
60
Amygdala
a subcortical structure that is involved in emotional responding and in processing olfactory signals
61
Anosmia
loss of the ability to smell due to injury or infection
62
Bimodal neuron
a neuron that responds to stimuli associated with more than one sense.
63
Detection threshold in relation to olfactory
the lowest concentration at which an odorant can be detected. This is different from the recognition threshold, which requires a higher concentration of odorant.
64
Macrosmatic
having a keen sense of smell; usually important to an animal's survival
65
Microsmatic
having a weak sense of smell; this usually occurs in animals like humans, in which the sense of smell is not crucial for survival
66
Neurogenisis
the cycle of birth, development, and death of a neuron. This process occurs for the receptors of olfaction and taste.
67
Nontaster
a person who cannot taste the compound phenylthiocarbamide
68
Nucleus of the solitary tract
the nucleus in the brain stem that receives signals from the tongue, the moth and the larynx transmitted by the chorda tympani, glossopharyngeal, and vagus nerves
69
Olfactory mucosa
the region inside the nose that contains the receptors for the sense of smell. There are 4 zones and a particular ORN type can be found in only one zone.
70
Olfactory receptor neurons (ORNs)
sensory neurons located in the olfactory mucosa that contain the olfactory receptors
71
Orbital frontal cortex (ORC)
an area in the frontal love, near the eyes, that receives signals originating in the olfactory receptors. Also known as the secondary olfactory cortex.
72
Papillae
ridges and valleys on the tongues, some of which contain taste buds. There are four types of papillae: filiform, fungiform, foliate, and circumvallate
73
Pheromone
chemical signal released by an individual that affects the physiology and behavior of other individuals
74
Piriform cortex (PC)
an area under the temporal love that receives signals from glomeruli in the olfactory bulb. Also called the primary olfactory cortex.
75
Supertaster
a person who is especially sensitive to 6-n-prophylthiouracil (PROP), a bitter substance. More prevalent in females.
76
Taste bud
a structure located within papillae on the tongue that contains the taste cells
77
Taste cell
cell located in taste buds hat causes the transduction of chemical to electrical energy when chemicals contact receptor sites or channels located at the top of this cell.
78
Taste pore
an opening in the taste bud through which the tips of taste cells protrude. When chemicals enter a taste pore. they stimulate the taste cells and result in transduction
79
Taster
a person who can taste the compound phenylthiocarbimide. They typically have a higher density of taste buds than non-tasters and have specialized receptors that non-tasters lack.
80
Odetype
group of odorants with a specific chemical feature that determines firing rate
81
What are the 5 taste receptors?
bitter, sweet, sour, salty, umami
82
Describe the relation between signals from the mechanoreceptors, signals from the nociceptors, the medial lemniscal pathway, and the spinothalamic pathway
Signals from the mechanoreceptors are carried primarily on the medial lemniscal pathway and those from the nociceptors primarilybon the spinothalamic pathway
83
In which brain structure do we find first find cells that are sensitive to input from both olfaction and taste?
The orbitofrontal cortex
84
What is sound?
1) physical sound is pressure changes in the air or other medium
2) perceptual sound is the experience we have when we hear
85
Describe sound in terms of pressure changes in the air
a sound stimulus occurs when the movements or vibrations of an object cause pressure changes of condensations and rarefactions.
86
Condensations in sound creation
the act of pushing the surrounding air molecules together as the diaphragm of the speaker moves out which causes a slight increase in the density of molecules near the diaphragm.
87
Rarefactions in sound creation
when the speaker diaphragm moves back in causing air molecules that were spread out to fill in the increased space
88
Pure tone
occurs when changes in air pressure occur in a pattern described by a mathematical function called a sine wave
89
Sound frequency
the number of cycles per second that the pressure changes repeat which is measured in hertz (Hz)
90
Sound amplitude
the size of the pressure change which is measured in decibels (dB) which are scaled down via Log because they grow exponentially. Amplitude and loudness is a perceptual sensation, not a physical one.
91
Audibility curve
a curve that indicates the sound pressure level (SPL) at threshold for frequencies across the audible spectrum.
92
Tone height
the perceptual experience of increasing pitch that accompanies increases in a tone's fundamental frequency
93
Tone chroma
the perceptual similarity of notes separated by one or more octaves.
94
Timbre
the quality that distinguishes between two tones that have the same loudness, pitch, and duration, but still sound different
95
Describe the sensitivity of human hearing
People are least sensitive at low and high frequencies and most sensitive at middle frequencies
96
Generally speaking, what is the psychological correlate of frequency of a pure tone?
Pitch
97
Generally speaking, what is the psychological correlate of amplitude of a pure tone?
Loudness
98
Pinna
The part of the ear that is visible on the outside of the head. It helps people localize sounds
99
Auditory canal
The canal through which air vibrations travel from the environment to the tympanic membrane. It amplifies sounds at its resonance frequency, thus making them more audible
100
Ossicles
Three small bones in the middle ear that transmit vibrations from the outer to the inner ear. One of the functions of these bones is to concentrate the sound pressure from a relatively large area on the tympanic membrane onto a much smaller area on the oval window.
101
In the middle ear, there are small muscles attached to the ossicles. What function does contraction of these muscles have?
It dampens very loud sounds, thus protecting the ear from potential damage
102
What is the role of the envelope on the traveling wave?
It traces out the point of maximum displacement to a particular sound along the length of the basilar membrane
103
What causes the de-polarization of a hair cell?
The bending of the cilia in one particular direction
104
What are the two primary factors that influence our perception of the timbre of a sound, such as a musical note?
1) Harmonic structure
| 2) Attack and decay
105
What does the pitch we perceive corresponds to?
The rate at which the waveform repeats itself
106
What does the main characteristic frequency of an auditory neuron refer to?
The frequency of sound to which the neuron is most sensitive
107
Explain the periodicity theory of pitch perception
the pitch we perceive corresponds to the rate at which the waveform repeats itself
108
Bandpass filter
has the role of passing all frequencies between two bounds, blocking frequencies below the lower bound and above the upper bound
109
Phoneme
The smallest unit of sound that distinguishes the meaning of two words in a language
110
What is the difference between the formation of vowels and consonants?
Vowels are made with an open vocal tract; consonants are made with at least a partially closed tract
111
Fourier analysis
The idea that the basilar membrane breaks the sound down into its component frequencies
and that auditory neurons signal those individual frequencies to the brain
112
Apex (of the cochlear)
the end of the cochlear furthest from middle ear
113
Attack and Decay (in regards to sound)
Attack = the build up of sound at the beginning of the tone
Decay = the decease in sound at the end of the tone.
They are one of the two primary factors that influence perception of timbre.
114
Auditory receiving area (A1)
The area of the cortex, located in the temporal lobe, that is the primary receiving area for hearing.
115
Base (of the cochlea)
The part of the cochlea nearest the middle ear
116
Basilar membrane
a membrane that stretches the length of the cochlea and controls the vibration of the cochlear partition
117
Belt area
Auditory area in the temporal love that receives signals from the core area and sends signals to the parabelt area
118
Cilia
fine hairs that protrude from the inner and outer hair cells of the auditory system. Bending the cilia of the inner hair cells leads to transduction.
119
Cochlea
The snail-shaped, liquid-filled structure that contains the structures of the inner ear, the most important of which are the basilar membrane, the tectorial membrane, and the hair cells.
120
Cochlear implant
a device in which electrodes are inserted into the cochlea to create hearing by electrically stimulating the auditory nerve fibers. This device is used to restore hearing in people who have lost their hearing because of damaged hair cells.
121
Cochlear partition
A partition in the cochlea, extending almost its full length, that separates the scala tympani and the scala vestibuli. the organ of Corti, which contains the hair cells, is part of the cochlear partition.
122
Decibel (dB)
A unit that indicates the pressure of a sound stimulus relative to a reference pressure: dB=20log(P/Psub0) whee P is the pressure of the tone and Psub0 is the reference pressure.
123
Tympanic membrane/Eardrum
The membrane located at the end of the auditory canal that vibrates in response to pressure changes. This vibration is transmitted to the bones of the middle ear.
124
Equal loudness curves
A curve that indicates the sound pressure levels that result in a perception of the same loudness at frequencies across the audible spectrum.
125
First harmonic/Fundamental Frequency
The first harmonic of a complex tone; usually the lowest frequency in the frequency spectrum of a complex tone. The tone';s other components, called higher harmonics, have frequencies that are multiples of the fundamental frequency.
126
Frequency spectrum
A plot that indicates the amplitude of the various harmonics that make up a complex tone. Each harmonic is indicated by a line that is positioned along the frequency axis, with the height of the line indicating the amplitude of the harmonic.
127
Hair cells (ear)
Inner - auditory receptor cell in the inner ear that is primarily responsible for auditory transduction and the perception of pitch
Outer - auditory receptor cells in the inner ear that amplify the response of inner hair cells by amplifying the vibrations of the basilar membrane.
128
Harmonics
Pure-tone components of a complex tone that have frequencies that are multiples of the fundamental frequency.
129
Hert (Hz)
The unit for designating the frequency of a tone. One Hertz equals one cycle per second.
130
Incus
The second of the three ossicles of the middle ear. It transmits vibrations from the malleus to the stapes
131
Inner Ear
The innermost division of the ear, containing the cochlea and the receptors for hearing.
132
Malleus
The first of the ossicles of the middle ear. Receives vibration from the tympanic membrane and transmits these vibrations to the incus
133
Middle ear and muscles
Middle ear - the small air-filled space between the auditory canal and the cochlea that contains the ossicles
Middle-ear muscles - muscles attached to the ossicles in the middle ear. The smallest skeletal muscles in the body, they contract in response to very intense sounds and dampen the vibration of the ossicles.
134
Missing fundamental
the phenomenon in which you can still recognize a tone when the fundamental wave is missing (?)
135
Noise-induced hearing loss
a form of sensorineural hearing loss that occurs when load noises cause degeneration of the hair cells
136
Octave
tones that have frequencies that are binary multiples of each other (2,4, etc.). For example, a 800-Hz tone is one octave above a 400-Hz tone
137
Organ of corti
the major structure of the cochlear partition, containing the basilar membrane, the tectorial membrane, and the receptors for hearing.
138
Outer ear
The pinna and the auditory canal.
139
Oval window
a small, membrane-covered hole in the cochlea that receives vibrations from the stapes
140
Parabelt area
Auditory area in the temporal love that receives signals from the belt area.
141
Phase locking
firing of auditory neurons in synchrony with the phase of an auditory stimulus.
142
Place theory of hearing
the proposal that the frequency of a sound is indicated by the place along the organ of Corti at which nerve firing is highest. Modern place theory is based on Bekesy's traveling wave theory of hearing.
143
Presbycusis
a form of sensorineural hearing loss that occurs as a function of age and is usually associated with a decrease in the ability to hear high frequencies. Since this loss also appears to be related to exposure to environmental sounds, it is also called sociocusis.
144
Pure Tone
a tone with pressure changes that can be described by a single sine wave.
145
Resonance
a mechanism that enhances the intensity of certain frequencies because of the reflection of sound waves in a closed tube. Resonance in the auditory canal enhances frequencies between about 2000 and 5000 Hz.
146
Resonant frequency
the frequency that is most strongly enhanced by resonance. The resonance frequency of a closed tune is determined by the length of the tube.
147
Scala tympani
273
148
Scala vestibule
273
149
Sound pressure level (SPL)
a designation used to indicate that the reference pressure used for calculating a tone's decibel rating is set to 20 micropascals, near the threshold in the most sensitive frequency range for hearing.
150
Sound wave
pattern of pressure changes in a medium. Most of the sounds we hear are due to pressure changes in the air although sounds can be transmitted through water and solids as well.
151
Stapes
the last of the three ossicles in the middle ear. It receives vibrations from the incus and transmits these vibrations to the oval window of the inner ear.
152
Tectorial membrane
a membrane that stretches the length of the cochlea and is located directly over the hair cells. Vibrations of the cochlear partition cause the tectorial membrane to bend the hair cells by rubbing against them.
153
Temporal coding
the connection between the frequency of a sound stimulus and the timing of the auditory nerve fiber firing.
154
Tonotopic map
an ordered map of frequencies created by the responding of neurons within structures in the auditory system. There is a tonotopic map of neurons along the length of the cochlea, with neurons at the apex responding best to low frequencies and neurons at the base responding best to high frequencies.
155
Traveling wave
in the auditory system, vibration of the basilar membrane in which the peak of the vibration travels from the base of the membrane to its apex.
156
Transduction
In the sense, the transformation of environmental energy into electrical energy. For example, the retinal receptors transduce light energy into electrical energy.
