Exam 3 Flashcards

Question

Common causes of hallucinations

Answer 1

``` ◦ Mental illness (schizophrenia) ◦ Drugs ◦ Extreme duress Sleep deprivation, Starvation, Illness ◦ Ritualized behavior Chanting, self-flagellation, deep meditation ◦ Sensory deprivation Like in a sensory deprivation tank ```

Answer 2

``` ◦ Colors and geometric shapes ◦ Tunnels ◦ Spirals ◦ Grids ◦ Cobwebs ```

Answer 3

◦ Experiences where people feel like they had died or been close to dying ◦ May feel like they have returned from the grave

Answer 4

``` ◦ Similar experiences reported by many Seeing a light at the end of a tunnel Visions of a world beyond Like their relatives waiting in heaven Or, how their energy would become one with the universe Intense emotions Usually positive Out of body experiences The presence of other beings ```

Answer 5

Terror Management Theory ◦ Humans only animal aware of own mortality ◦ Awareness of mortality theorized to arouse feelings of terror and anxiety that need to be managed ◦ To cope with the terror of mortality salience, the Self seeks connection with things that will exist death ◦ Attitudes change in predictable ways Become more patriotic, more religious, more family oriented, more supportive of the extended Self Increased drive to believe that the individual is a part of something that will continue after death

Answer 6

◦ Defense of cultural worldview Patriotism, religion, family values Greater love and tolerance others (with some exceptions) ◦ Greater dislike of people with negative view of country ◦ Greater support of harsh tactic used against national enemies ◦ Greater dislike of abstract art Because abstract art doesn’t have a clear “meaning”

Answer 7

◦ Decreased activity of visual cortex Produced “light at the end of tunnel” visions ◦ Decreased activity at temporal-parietal junction Sensory association areas Produces sensory hallucinations and feeling of disembodiment ◦ Feelings of euphoria due to release of natural endorphins

Answer 8

Many mystical feelings associated with activity at the TPJ ◦ The TPJ is where the temporal and parietal lobes meet ◦ Adjacent with multiple “association areas” Association areas integrate info from primary receiving areas Shapes and colors become a “tree” or a “face” Salty, sweet, and umami become “ice cream” or “a hamburger” Pressure, temperature, and vibration become a “silk shirt” or a “lovers kiss” ◦ TPJ adjacent with visual, auditory, somatosensory association areas Including areas involved in proprioception

Answer 9

- Andrew Neuberg During mediation and prayer ◦ Neural activity decreases in the parietal lobe Orientation-association area Patients with lesions in this area have difficulty navigating through physical environments and report feeling an inability to determine where there physical self ends and the physical world begins Loss of proprioception ◦ Activation overlaps with areas involved during orgasm Perhaps giving insight into experiences of religious ecstasy

Answer 10

Research of Michael Persinger ◦ Created a helmet that directs electromagnetic waves at targeted parts of the left temporal lobe ◦ Simulates effects of temporal lobe epilepsy A large percentage of patients report experiences of hearing voices and seeing ghostly figures and out of body experiences ◦ Effects of the helmet Reports that 80% of subjects tested report some feeling of a “sensed presence”, out-of-body, or other type of dissociative state Visions experienced highly influenced by religious belief and expectations Catholics might see feel the presence of a saint Sci-fi enthusiast might feel the presence of aliens

Answer 11

Research of Richard Davidson ◦ Studies effects of meditative practices on neural activity ◦ Research involves buddhist monks Including the Dalai Lami Effects of Mediation ◦ Left hemisphere lateralization Left lateralization linked to positive affect Right lateralization linked to negative affect ◦ Greater neural plasticity ◦ Improved immune function ◦ Beneficial effects of mediation even for novice mediators

Answer 12

! Objective Threshold | ! Amount of signal for the stimulus to be detected at all

Answer 13

! Amount of signal for the stimulus to be consciously detected ! Subjective threshold is always greater than the objective threshold

Answer 14

above objective threshold but below subjective threshold

Answer 15

! “Sensitivity” for detecting a target ! Depends on the amount of stimulus, and… " How much is there? ! The criteria used to identify the stimulus " How much do you need to say “Yes” it’s there

Answer 16

Four types of responses ! Hit - it’s there, you saw it ! Miss – it’s there, you missed it ! False Alarm – it’s not there, but you saw it ! Correct Rejection - it’s not there, and you didn’t see it

Answer 17

! Legacy of James Vicery ! The Story: Ft. Lee, NJ (1957) " Flashed “Hungry, Eat Popcorn” and “Drink Coca-Cola” for 3 milliseconds every 5 seconds " Claim: popcorn sales rose 58% and Coke sales rose 18% ! Should you believe it? " No – the stimuli were beneath the objective threshold " 3 milliseconds is too fast for human visual system to detect " In 1962, Vicery admitted the story was a gimmick. " Many believe the data were falsified and/or that he never actually ran the study

Answer 18

! William James " “Wherever a movement…immediately follows upon the idea of it, we have ideomotor action. We are then aware of nothing between the conception and the execution.” " “…for certain… every [mental] representation of a movement awakens in some degree the actual movement"

Answer 19

– Conscious – one thing at a time – Non-conscious – many things simultaneously • Multiple meanings of the word “Palm” simultaneously activated by a subliminal prime • Only one meaning activated with a liminal prime

Answer 20

! Use primes to measure valence of attitudes (good/bad) ! If you like something, easier to pair with “good” things ! If you dislike something, easier to pair with “bad” things ! Used to measure social attitudes " Easier to associate “bad” with socially stigmatized groups

Answer 21

! Use of primes to measure content of attitudes ! Faster to respond to congruent pairs vs. incongruent pairs " Bread goes with Butter, not with Cats ! Used to measure social attitudes " Easier to associate “African-American” with “athletic” than “intelligent”

Answer 22

! Action Priming | ! Use of primes to influence or alter behavior

Answer 23

! Mood Priming ! Priming that influences moods and evaluations " Warm vs. Cold temperature " Warm coffee makes people nicer than ice water does " Facial feedback " Hold a pen sideways with your teeth (kinda like a smile) " Hold a pen facing forward with your lips (kinda like a frown) " A joke is funnier with “smiling” " Physical feedback " Pull towards vs. Pushing away from you " Like someone more when pulling towards self

Answer 24

``` ! Lexical Decision Tasks ! Is this a real word or not? ! Demonstrates priming effects ! Words recognized faster when primed with a related word (compared to being primed with an unrelated word) ```

Answer 25

``` Say the color the words are printed in as quickly as you can What errors do you make? Reading interferes with your ability to state the color, and your reaction time is slower Another “negative priming” effect ```

Answer 26

Separate perception and action pathways ◦ Case study of D.F. Woman with damage to temporal lobe Lost ability to perceive orientation ◦ Could not match the orientation of a letter to the orientation of the slot Brain did not understand what “horizontal” meant Could not consciously understand the task Because it required her to perceive orientation ◦ But…if asked to “mail” the letter, she could Once she began the action of mailing the letter, she automatically aligned it to match the slot The behavior occurred without conscious awareness of how to do it

Answer 27

Unlearned fast simple response to a stimulus ◦ Controlled by spinal cord and brain stem ◦ Can’t prevent a reflex, but can dampen the response ◦ Examples Baby reflexes Rooting, sucking, grasping reflexes Patellar reflex The “knee jerk” reflex Reflex linked to your proprioceptive sense Leg kicks because it thinks the leg is being stretched Startle reflex A defensive reaction to unanticipated stimuli

Answer 28

Set pattern of complex behavior present in every member of a species ◦ Instincts are “hardwired” in the brain Instinctual behaviors are not learned Born already “knowing” how to do certain things Examples Spiders building a web Imprinting in birds Migration patterns of fish, turtles, and birds Instinctual behaviors can be modified by environment Bird song will change due to the other songs that are present Spiders will build web differently if they are on drugs

Answer 29

Evolution has prepared the brain to learn certain stuff Attention to faces Newborn babies pay more attention to faces than non-faces Easier to learn a fear of snakes than flowers Fear learning in humans and monkeys Snakes are an evolutionary threat to primates Critical period for language Ability to learn language peaks during early childhood After the age of 7, language becomes very difficult to learn

Answer 30

Behaviors that one has no ability to consciously control Behaviors while in an unconscious state Like talking in your sleep or sleep walking Behavior of patients with usual neurological conditions Split-brain patients Right brain is unconscious about what the left brain controls Uncontrolled behavior due to brain tumors Patients may have behaviors triggered by specific stimuli Neurological tics Memory disruptions Patients may have intact procedural memory that triggers behavior without conscious awareness

Answer 31

``` Behavior that occurs without awareness, but that could be consciously controlled Once they become conscious ◦ Examples Behaviors on “auto-pilot” Walking, driving, etc Emotional reactions Facial expressions may be triggered automatically but can be controlled afterwards Effects of priming Automatic vs. Controlled behavior The effect of automatic attitudes on behavior depends on the person’s motivations and awareness ```

Answer 32

Complex behaviors that are frequently repeated Under conscious control but frequently repeated Individual events may blur together and go unnoticed ◦ Triggers for habitual behaviors may not be consciously known Examples Habit of getting a snack around 2pm? Could be triggered by low sugar in the blood Could be triggered by a desire to socialize ◦ Much research into creating and shaping human habits for both good and for ill

Answer 33

Cue ◦ A stimulus that triggers the behavior ◦ Can be external – like a sight, or a scent, or a music cue ◦ Could be internal – like a feeling of fatigue or boredom Routine ◦ The behavior that is triggered Could be eating, watching TV, exercising, playing a game, etc.. ◦ Habits are repeated because they lead to rewards Reinforcer ◦ The pleasure or reward that comes from the behavior Pleasure of food, the relief from boredom, the feeling of accomplishment, etc..

Answer 34

As the behavior is repeated, it requires less effort and demands less attention

Answer 35

Habitual behaviors can be difficult to change ◦ They become habitual because they are repeated ◦ They are repeated because they are reinforcing Once a habit loop has developed, decisions are no longer fully conscious ◦ The habit cue primes the habitual behavior Changing habits requires conscious awareness of the cues and rewards ◦ May be aware of our behavior, but not aware of the cues or the reward that motivates the behavior

Answer 36

◦ Association of neutral stimulus with a stimulus that leads to a specific response ◦ Later the neutral stimulus is able to trigger the response Pavlov’s dogs Learned to associate bell with food Baby Albert Learned to associate “flurry and white” with loud noise

Answer 37

◦ Learning through reinforcement and punishment ◦ Behaviors that are reinforced will increase ◦ Behaviors that are punished will decrease

Answer 38

Positive reinforcement (give something good) ◦ Behavior increases from receiving a pleasant stimulus Dog get a treat when it sits on command

Answer 39

Negative reinforcement (take away something bad) ◦ Behavior increases because an aversive stimulus is removed Rat learns that pulling a lever will prevent it from being shocked Parent buys a toy to stop a child’s temper tantrum

Answer 40

Positive punishment (give something bad) ◦ Behavior decreases because an aversive stimulus is received A child stops misbehaving after he gets spanked

Answer 41

Negative punishment (take away something good) ◦ Behavior decreases because a pleasant stimulus is removed A child stops misbehaving after his candy is taken away A teenager gets punished by being grounded (removing their freedom)

Answer 42

Democritus ◦ Ancient Greek Philosopher ◦ First theory of the atom “Atomos” in ancient Greek Everything was made from tiny bits of matter ◦ Argued Free Will does not exist Determinism ◦ Physical objects follow causal laws Human beings are physical objects ◦ Every event is determined by past events ◦ Every thing that happens is pre-determined There is only one possible future for everything Including people

Answer 43

Indeterminism ◦ Aristotle and Epicurus ◦ Argued people must be responsible for their actions, thus determinism can’t be correct The argument was that humans must be morally responsible for their actions Otherwise, no one could be accountable for criminal acts ◦ Argued that some events occur by chance ◦ Not every event is truly pre-determined ◦ This degree of randomness was sufficient to allow humans to have free will

Answer 44

Body is physical. Subject to physical laws ◦ Mind is non-physical. ◦ Acts of mind do not nave to be pre-determined If the mind is separate from the physical body ◦ Mind controls the physical body.

Answer 45

``` David Hume (and others) ◦ All information learned through senses ◦ Determinism is based on observation ◦ But, observations are flawed Don’t observe the full “truth” of reality ◦ The cause and effect we observe are merely inferences of the mind Reasons and Passions ◦ Rational thought (reasons) is based on observations of the outside world ◦ But, behavior can be caused by feelings (passions) which come from within ```

Answer 46

Response to Hume’s criticism of empirical sciences (based on observations) Kant is a pioneer of the “scientific method” ◦ Proposed that determinism must be true for the physical world ◦ But, there must also exist another (non-physical) world outside of physical space and time Kant called this the “noumenal” world. And, proposed it was the realm of God, the infinite, and the immortal soul ◦ This form of dualism argued that non-physical events could cause changes in the physical world

Answer 47

Neither science or religion appears to be able to fully answer the question of free will ◦ Scientifically… the universe follows deterministic laws. Cause and effect. Human beings are physical beings. Thus, all choices are effects of pre-determined causes. ◦ Religiously… God is all-knowing and all-powerful. God already knows what choices will be made, so how was it possible that anyone made a choice?

Answer 48

Frontal lobes commonly associated with selfregulation, planning, and decision making Executive functions ◦ The dorsalateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) is associated with conscious decisions to move

Answer 49

``` Activity in the brain’s motor cortex that precedes a movement ◦ Brain activity gradually increases prior to a voluntary movement ◦ The readiness potential begins up to one second before the actual movement As if the brain is slowly getting ready to move the body ```

Answer 50

``` Needs to time three events ◦ 1) Start of the muscle movement (M) ◦ 2) Start of the readiness potential (RP) ◦ 3) When the intention to move occurs (W) This was labeled “W” for “will” Used EEG and EMG to time M and RP ◦ EEG to record readiness potential ◦ EMG to record the muscle movement ```

Answer 51

Results ◦ Readiness potential was about 550ms before the action ◦ Conscious intent was about 200ms before the action ◦ Readiness potential for action came before the decision to act! Brain was already initiating the behavior 350ms before the person had “decided” to act

Answer 52

Rules of cause and effect suggest… ◦ The brain initiates the action independent of conscious will ◦ The conscious mind simply becomes aware that the action is going to happen

Answer 53

We can’t control our impulses to initiate an action ◦ But… when we become consciously aware of an impulse ◦ Our conscious minds can “veto” the action

Exam 3 Flashcards

(77 cards)