Exam 3: Animal Form & Function Flashcards
0
Q
what is an aggregation of tissues into a larger functional unit?
A
organ
1
Q
what are the 5 levels of organization?
A
cellular tissue organ organ system organism
2
Q
what is a series of organs functioning together?
A
organ system
3
Q
what are the 10 parts of an organ system?
A
integumentary digestive nervous muscular/skeleton circulatory respiratory excretory (urinary) endocrine reproductive immune/lymphatic
4
Q
which system is the outer covering of the body that is mostly for protection? i.e. skin, hair, scales, feathers
A
integumentary
5
Q
what are the 3 major functions of the digestive system?
A
breakdown of solid food materials
waste elimination
nutrient absorption
6
Q
which system is the coordination of body activities? i.e. communication and balance
A
nervous
7
Q
what is the skeleton for?
A
body support
locomotion
8
Q
what are the muscles for?
A
to move the skeleton for locomotion
9
Q
which system deals with the transport if solutes through the animal’s body? i.e. blood stream, heart, and vessels
A
circulatory
10
Q
which system is involved in the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide with the environment?
A
respiratory
11
Q
which system is the elimination of liquid waste and fluid regulation?
A
excretory/urinary
12
Q
which system is the hormonal control of the body?
A
endocrine
13
Q
which system produces male and female gametes?
A
reproductive
14
Q
which system is the defense against pathogens and invaders?
A
immune/lymphatic
15
Q
what is anatomy?
A
the structure of the body
16
Q
what is physiology?
A
the function of the body
17
Q
how many cell types do humans have?
A
over 200
18
Q
what are the 4 basic tissue types?
A
epithelial
connective
muscle
nervous
19
Q
describe epithelial tissue
4 points
A
in sheets
covers/lines surfaces and cavities
cells are tightly packed
separated from underlying connective tissue by basal lamin
20
Q
what is the basal lamin?
A
the basement membrane
21
Q
what are the 2 classifications for epithelial tissue?
A
number of cell layers
morphology/shape of cells
22
Q
when dealing with cell layers, what are the two types of epithelium?
A
simple
stratified
23
Q
how many cell layers are in simple epithelium?
A
one
24
how many cell layers are in stratified epithelium?
2 or more
25
what are the 3 different shapes of epithelium?
squamous
cuboidal
columnar
26
which cell shapes have a cell in the center?
squamous
| cuboidal
27
which cell shape had a cell in the bottom?
columnar
28
which shell shape is flat? cubed/square? column?
squamous
cuboidal
columnar
29
what are the 8 types of epithelium?
```
simple squamous
simple cuboidal
simple columnar
pseudostratified columnar
stratified squamous
stratified cuboidal
stratified columnar
transitional epithelium
```
30
Which type of epithelium is single layer of flat cells?
simple squamous
31
what are the 3 functions of simple squamous epithelium?
absorption
secretion
material exchange
32
which type of epithelium is a single layer of square cells?
simple cuboidal
33
what are the 3 functions of simple cuboidal epithelium?
absorption
secretion
sometimes transport
34
what type of epithelium is a single layer of rectangular/columnar cells?
simple columnar
35
what are the 3 functions of simple columnar epithelium?
absorption
secretion
protection
36
is pseudostratified columnar epithelium simple or stratified?
simple
37
what type of epithelium are all cells in contact with basal lamina?
pseudostratified columnar epithelium
38
in pseudostratified columnar epithelium, are cells the same height or do they vary?
vary
39
what are the 3 functions of pseudostratified columnar epithelium?
secretion
absorption
protection
40
what type of epithelium are outer cells that are dead and are then replaced by keratin?
stratified squamous epithelium
41
when cells are older, what are they replaced by?
keratin
42
what is the function of stratified squamous cells?
protection
43
how many cells thick are stratified cuboidal and stratified columnar?
2-3
44
what are the 2 functions of stratified cuboidal and stratified columnar epithelium?
transport
| barrier
45
what type of epithelium has multiple layers of stretchable/flexible cells?
transitional
46
where is transitional epithelium found?
layering of urinary bladder
47
what type of tissue connect, bind, anchor, and support structures?
connective tissues
48
what are the 6 types of connective tissues?
```
loose (areolar)
dense
cartilage
bone
adipose
blood
```
49
what connective tissue holds internal organs in place and provides support for the integument?
loose
50
what connective tissue is for strength and support?
dense
51
what parts of the body are dense connective tissues?
tendons
| ligaments
52
what type of connective tissue is for support, strength, flexibility?
cartilage
53
what connective tissue is for support and protection?
bone
54
what is adipose?
fat
55
what is the purpose of adipose tissue?
storage of fat
protection
energy storage
insulation
56
what are the 2 functions of blood?
transport
| protection
57
what are the 3 muscle tissues?
skeletal
smooth
cardiac
58
is skeletal muscle voluntary or involuntary?
voluntary
59
is smooth muscle voluntary or involuntary?
involuntary
60
is cardiac muscle voluntary or involuntary?
involuntary
61
what is the purpose of cardiac muscle?
pumping blood
62
what organ is made of cardiac muscle?
heart
63
what makes up the central nervous system?
brain and spinal cord
64
what makes up nervous tissue?
neurons
| neuroglial cells
65
what are neurons?
nerve cells
66
what provides nutrition for neurons?
neuroglial cells
67
what tissues make up organs?
connective
smooth muscle
nervous
epithelial
68
what are organ systems for?
structure
| function
69
what makes up the integumentary system in vertebrates?
skin and all other accessories such as hair
70
what is the largest vertebrate organ?
skin
71
what are the 6 functions of skin?
```
protection
prevents water loss
barrier to pathogens
temperature regulation
sensory reception
excretion
```
72
how many layers of skin are there?
2
73
what are the 2 layers of skin?
epidermis
| dermis
74
what is the epidermis?
an outer, thinner layer of skin
75
what is the dermis?
inner, thicker layer of skin
76
what is the epidermis composed of?
stratified squamous epithelium
77
what are defensive cells called?
langerhans cells
78
what do melanocytes produce?
pigment melana
| some UV protection
79
what are touch receptive cells?
merkel cells
80
what are keratinocytes?
keratin
81
which is thicker, the epidermis or the dermis?
dermis
82
what kind of vascular system does the dermis have?
highly vascularized
83
what is associated with light-touch sensation?
meissner's corpuscles
84
what is associated with deep pressure vibration sensors?
pacinian corpuscles
85
what is associated with dermis and temperature regulation?
sweat glands
86
how many sweat glands are there?
2.5 million
87
what do sweat glands secrete? what do they release?
ions and water
| heat
88
what produces sebum?
sebaceous glands
89
sebaceous glands are in the entire body except for which part?
palms and soles of feet
90
is the hypodermis part of the skin?
no
91
what does hypodermis mean?
below dermis
92
what is the hypodermis support for?
skin
93
what does the hypodermis store?
fats (adipose tissue)
94
what is holding in heat?
insulation
95
does the hypodermis provide softness or hardness?
softness
96
READ INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM PDF
READ INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM PDF
97
LOOK AT MUSCLE TISSUE PICTURES IN NOTES
LOOK AT MUSCLE TISSUE PICTURES IN NOTES
98
Are animals are autotrophic or heterotrophic?
heterotrophic
99
what is needed for survival, maintenance, growth, and reproduction?
food
100
what is the order of what needs the least amount of food to the most?
survival
maintenance
growth
reproduction
101
what are the 2 types of gut tract?
blind gut
| tube within a tube arrangement
102
which gut has no body cavity between gut and body wall?
blind gut
103
what does the one opening in a blind gut serve as?
the entrance for food and exit for waste
104
in a tube within a tube digestive tract, how many openings are there?
one at each end
105
which gut is a fluid filled body cavity(coelom) between gut and body wall?
tube within a tube
106
what are 5 the digestive enzymes?
```
hydrolase
carbohydrase
protease
lipase
nuclease
```
107
what is the purpose of hydrolase?
to split chemical bonds by adding water
108
after chemical bonds are split, how is water regenerated?
metabolically
109
what is the breakdown of large molecules into smaller forms?
digestion
110
what is chemical digestion?
water and enzymes
111
what is the breaking of large to small things by mechanical and physical features?
mechanical digestion
112
what is the uptake of digestive food by cells lining the gut tract?
absorption
113
what is the movement of ingested materials through the gut tract?
transport
114
what is the removal of undigested or unabsorbed materials?
elimination/excretion
115
what is the digestive tract or tube/ GI?
alimentary canal
116
what are parts of the region of reception?
buccal cavity (mouth & accessories)
117
what kind of digestion used in the buccal cavity?
chemical and mechanical
118
what enzyme is used in the salivary glands?
amylase
119
what is the point that the digestive system and respiratory system cross paths?
pharynx
120
where is the pharynx?
back of the mouth
121
what breaks down starch?
alpha amylase
122
what is in the region of conduction?
esophagus
| peristalsis
123
what is the tube leading from the back of the mouth to the stomach?
esophagus
124
what is a rhythmic wave like contraction to propel food forward in the gut tract?
peristalsis
125
what is the function of the region of storage and digestion?
temporary storage
126
what is a crop?
extra storage before the stomach in insects and birds
127
what is the enlarges portion of the esophagus?
crop
128
what is the stomach rugae lined with?
epithelium
129
what type of muscle is the wall of the stomach?
smooth
130
how many layers are in the wall of the stomach?
3
131
in the wall of the stomach, how do the muscles look?
vertical, horizontal, vertical
132
when the stomach is contracting what kind of movements does it make?
churning (like a mixer)
133
what begins the chemical digestion and protein digestion?
enzymes
134
what is the inner lining of the stomach made of?
epithelium with pits and glands
135
what type of cells secrete mucous to help keep what's inside moist?
mucous cells
136
what type of cells secrete pepsinogen?
chief cells
137
what type of cells secrete HCl?
parietal cells
138
what is the digestive juice and controls food cleaning?
HCl
139
what makes up pepsin?
pepsinogen and HCl
140
what is pepsin?
an enzyme for proteins
141
what is in the lumen of the stomach?
pepsinogen and HCl (pepsin)
142
what has minimal absorption?
lipid soluble material such as aspirin or alchol
143
what is the region of terminal digestion and absorption?
```
small intestines (vertebrates)
midgut (insects)
```
144
what begins and ends in the small intestine?
chemical digestions of lipids and nucleic acids
145
what is continuous and completed in the small intestine?
chemical digestion of carbohydrates and proteins
146
what are the 3 regions of the small intestine?
duodenum
jejunum
ileum
147
what is the beginning region of the small intestine? what attaches to the SI?
duodenum
| stomach
148
which region has many secretions dumped into it?
duodenum
149
what is the small intestine lined with? why?
epithelium
| for absorption
150
what does surface modification do for absorption?
increases the surface area
151
what are the 3 surface modifications?
plicae circulares
villus (villi)
microvilli
152
which surface modification is in folds?
plicae circulares
153
how many times does the plicae circulares increase surface area?
2-3
154
what surface modification are finger-like projections of intestinal lining?
villi (singular- villus)
155
how many times does villi increase surface area?
10
156
which surface modification is the folding of the plasma membrane of cells lining villus?
microvilli
157
how many times does surface area increase with microvilli?
20
158
LOOK AT PICTURES OF SURFACE MODIFICATIONS!!
LOOK AT PICTURES OF SURFACE MODIFICATIONS!!
159
What is in the region of water absorption and concentration of solids?
```
large intestine (vertebrates)
hind gut (insects)
```
160
how long is the the large intestine in mammals?
1.5 M
161
what is the large intestine lacking when compared to the small intestine?
plicae, villi, microvilli
162
what is the large intestine lined with?
simple epithelial lining
163
where is water absorbed through?
epithelium
164
what are the 2 functions of the large intestine?
water absorption and compaction/elimination of feces
165
what are the wastes that come out of the large intestine? how much of each?
```
water- 75%
inorganic substances- 5%
fat- 5%
undigested protein, bile, dead cells- 7%
roughage- 8%
```
166
what waste from the large intestine helps clean the system?
roughage
167
what is vitamin synthesis done by?
bacteria
168
what is the opening to the outside in the large intestine?
anus
169
what chamber receives contents of the digestive, urinary, and reproductive tracts?
cloaca
170
what are the accessory digestive glands part of?
the system, not the tube
171
what secretes enzymes and releases into the duodenum?
pancreas
172
what produces bile?
liver
173
what breaks down large fat globules?
bile
174
what 4 components make up bile?
carbohydrates
proteins
lipids
nucleic acids
175
what stores bile?
gall bladder
176
where does the gall bladder release bile?
duodenum
177
what type of carbohydrates are in the digestive system?
polysaccharides- mono and disaccharides
178
what type of proteins are in the digestive system?
polypeptides- amino acids
179
what type of fats are in the digestive system?
glycerol
| fatty acids
180
what type of nucleic acids are in the digestive system?
nucelotides
181
what are most breakdowns due to?
enzymes
182
what do enzymes do?
speed up chemical reactions to occur at biological temperatures
183
which system is the nervous system closely tied to?
sensory system
184
what is the brain to spinal cord ratio for mass in fish, reptiles, and humans?
2: 1
25: 1
55: 1
185
if the brain to spinal cord ration is bigger, what becomes better?
communication coordinator
186
what is in the peripheral nervous system?
all neurons outside of CNS and projections
187
in invertebrates is the peripheral nervous system simple or complex? is it easy or difficult to distinguish the difference between CNS and PNS?
simple
| difficult
188
what are the structural and functional units of the nervous system?
neurons
189
what are the 2 functions of neurons?
receive and carry signals
190
what is the structure of a neuron?
| 3 things
soma
dendrites
axons
191
what is the cell body that has a nucleus and organelles in a neuron?
soma
192
what are extensions of plasma membrane and pick up incoming signals in a neuron?
dendrites
193
what are extensions of the plasma membrane and send and carry away signals in a neuron?
axons
194
LOOK AT PAGE 852- NEURON!!!!
LOOK AT PAGE 852- NEURON!!!!
195
What type of cells support functions?
glial cells
196
which is more numerous, glial cells or neurons? by how much?
glial cells
| 1,000 times
197
what 2 things produce myelin sheath? where are they at?
```
oligdendrocytes (CNS)
schwan cells (PNS)
```
198
what type of cells remove cellular debris (dead cells, ruptured cells, and damaged cells)?
microglial cells
199
what produces more nervous tissue, new neurons, and more glial cells?
stem cells
200
what 2 things make up a stem cell?
astrocytes
| radial glial cells
201
what provides metabolic support and also provides nutrition for neurons?
astrocytes
202
what cells lay out a pathway for the nervous system during embryonic development?
radial glial cells
203
what are the 3 types of neurons?
sensory
motor
interneurons
204
which type of neurons detect conditions from the outside world or internal body conditions?
sensory
205
what does afferent mean? what neuron is afferent?
transmitting info to CNS
| sensory
206
what type of neuron sends signals away from CNS to elicit response?
motor
207
what do motor neurons carry?
message from CNS
208
are motor neurons afferent or efferent?
efferent
209
what type of neurons form interconnections between other neurons?
interneurons
210
what type of neuron is the reflex arc? is voluntary or involuntary?
interneuron
| involuntary
211
where does the reflex arc go from?
from receptor to CNS
212
LOOK AT REFLEX ARC DRAWING!!!
LOOK AT REFLEX ARC DRAWING!!!
213
What 2 things generate electrical signals?
neurons and muscle cells
214
what is the gate keeper?
membrane
215
what is the difference in charge between inside and outside of the cell?
membrane potential
216
does ion concentration differ?
yes, chemically
217
is the cell polarized or non-polarized?
polarized
218
what is it called when the neurons are not sending signals?
resting membrane potential
219
what kind of permeability does the resting membrane have? what is in it?
selectively
| cations and anions
220
which part, inside or outside, does the membrane have more anions? cations?
inside
| outside
221
what are 3 factors contributing to resting potential?
sodium- potassium pump
ion specific channels allowing passive ion movement
more negatively charged ions inside the cell
222
how many sodiums and potassiums are pumped put in the sodium-potassium pump?
3 Na
| 2 K
223
is a membrane more permeable to Na or K?
K
224
which channels, Na or K, are most frequently open at resting potential?
K
225
when there is no net movement, opposing forces of electro/chemical can cause what?
equilibrium
226
what is created between the inside and outside of cell?
imbalance
227
what is imbalance due to?
ion and chemical movement
228
what chemicals are in chemical movement?
K, Na, Cl
229
changes in membrane potential are changes in what?
degree of polarization
230
what moves in during depolarization?
Na
231
what moves out during hyperpolariztion?
K
232
in depolarization, movement becomes more or less positive?
more
233
in hyperpolarization, movement becomes more or less positive?
less
234
in depolarization, membrane becomes more or less negative?
less negative
235
in hyperpolarization, membrane becomes more or less negative?
more
236
do all cells exhibit membrane potential?
yes
237
what 2 things are excitable? what does this mean?
neurons and muscle cells
| capacity to generate electrical signals
238
what are the 2 uses of gated ion channels?
voltage and ligand
239
which gated ion channel opens and closes in response to voltage changes?
voltage-gated
240
which gated ion channel opens and closes in response to chemicals?
ligand-gated
241
what is the language of nerve impulse?
frequency
242
when frequency is higher, what is greater?
excitation
243
what are the 3 types of nerve impulses?
resting potential
action potential
sodium/potassium pump
244
what is it when there is an imbalance between K and Na, and between the inside and outside axon?
resting potential
245
at rest, what channels are closed?
K, Na, Cl
246
what is the rapid/brief change of nerve fiber?
action potential
247
what is the electric potential of impulse?
action potential
248
since action potential starts and never stops, what is it called?
self-propagating
249
once action potential is finished, where does the membrane return?
resting potential
250
why does K diffuse out?
electrical gradient changes
251
what does pumping out Na and pumping in K require?
ATP
252
what is a complex of proteins in membranes?
sodium/potassium pump
253
LOOK AT IMPULSE CONDUCTION RATE!!!
LOOK AT IMPULSE CONDUCTION RATE!!!
254
What is a junction or gap where the terminal end of an axon meets another neuron, muscle cell, or gland?
synapses
255
do axons and neurons touch?
no
256
what are the gaps in the myelin sheath called?
nodes of raavier
257
when an impulse jumps the gaps, what is that called?
saltatorial conduction
258
what are the 2 types of synapses?
electric and chemical
259
which type of synapses is more common?
chemical
260
which type of synapses is faster?
electrical
261
LOOK AT PRE-SYNAPTIC NEURON!!!
LOOK AT PRE-SYNAPTIC NEURON!!!
262
Which phylum has the simplest neural organization?
cnidaria
263
are impulses one one?
no, they are part of nerve nets
264
explain nervous system of phylum Platyhelminthes
2 anteria ganglia (each has a network branching off)
weakly developed CNS and PNS
no brain or spinal cord
mostly 1-way impulses
265
explain nervous system of phylum Annelida
motor & sensory neurons
primitive cells
brain
ventral nerve cord
266
explain nervous system of phylum Mollusca
most complex of invertebrates (non-chordate)
267
explain nervous system of phylum Anthropoda
similar to annelida
well developed brain (parts)
good with social behavior, learning, division of labor
268
what is the spinal cord in vertebrates like?
dorsal, hollow, within vertebral column
269
what are the 3 layers of the spinal cord? which is the outer, inner, and middle?
duramater- outer
arachnoid- middle
piamater- inner
270
what is between each spinal cord layer and in the hollow canal?
cerebrospinal fluid
271
how has the brain change in size and complexity?
increase in size and complexity with vertebral column
272
what does the nervous system develop from?
neural fold in embryo
273
where is the greatest change in the brain?
cerebrum (fore-brain)
274
when does the brain change?
in embryonic development
275
where does the brain change?
in sections or parts
276
what are the 3 divisions of the vertebrate brain?
hindbrain
midbrain
forebrain
277
LOOK AT BRAIN PICTURES!!!
LOOK AT BRAIN PICTURES!!!
278
What does the vertebrae enclose?
spinal cord
279
what is the function of the vertebrae?
protection
280
what is the extension of the spinal cord and beginning of hind brain?
medulla oblongata
281
what is the medulla oblongata associated with?
| 4 things
heart rate
breathing
metabolism
digestion
282
what is the extension of the brain stem/stalk?
midbrain region
283
what is the dorsal side of the midbrain in the medulla?
cerebellum
284
what is the cerebellum involved in?
| 3 things
equilibrium
balance
movement
285
what functions as a relay station sending messages to higher brain centers?
thalamus
286
what is the little know above the nasal cavity?
pituitary gland
287
wha kind of gland is the pituitary gland?
hormonal
288
what is the housekeeping center?
hypothalamus
289
what is the hypothalamus involved with?
| 4 things
appetite
thirst
water balance
temperature
290
where is the hypothalamus?
below the thalamus
291
what kind of gland is the hypothalamus?
hormonal
292
what is a band of nerve fibers connecting the left and right sides of the cerebrum?
corpus callosum
293
what is the purpose of the corpus callosum?
speeding up the sending of messages
294
where is the corpus callosum found? What is it thickest in?
mammals
| humans
295
what is the largest part of the brain?
cerebrum
296
what is the cerebrum important for?
learning
language
vision
math and art skill
297
what are the 4 functions of the endoskeleton?
protection of body parts
provides attachment site for skeletal muscle
storage of calcium and other minerals
blood cell production
298
what kind of tissue is bone tissue?
connective
299
list 4 properties about bones
strong
lightweight
flexible
depository of minerals
300
what 2 minerals are deposited in bone?
calcium salts
| phosphorus salts
301
what are the 2 types of bone formation?
endochondral
| intramembranous
302
what is enchondral bone formation?
when bone replace cartilage
303
what is intramembranous formation?
bone forms inside/within membranes of connective tissue
304
what are the 2 types of bone tissue?
compact
| spongy
305
which type of bone tissue has osteons?
compact
306
what is the functional and structural unit of compact bone?
osteons
307
is compact bone light or heavy?
heavy
308
describe spongy bone
| 3 things
bony spikes
| lots of air spaces lightweight
309
LOOK AT BONE ANATOMY!!!!
LOOK AT BONE ANATOMY!!!!
310
What is the protective membrane on the external surface of the bone except for the very ends?
periosteum
311
what ensures that the bone doesn't rub against bone?
articular cartilage
312
what type of cartilage is articular cartilage?
hyaline
313
what are the 4 types of bone cells?
osteoprogenitor
osteoblasts
osteocytes
osteoclasts
314
which bone cell is within the periosteum and will differentiate into osteoblasts?
osteoprogenitor
315
which bone cell are bone forming cells that produce dense or compact bone?
osteoblasts
316
which bone cell is a mature osteoblast that is "trapped" in bone tissue and are cells within the bone?
osteocytes
317
which bone cells are bone resorbing cells that breakdown and absorb bone tissue?
osteoclasts
318
LOOK AT MICROSCOPE ANATOMY OF COMPACT BONE!!!
LOOK AT MICROSCOPE ANATOMY OF COMPACT BONE!!!
319
What is the most oriented parallel to ling axis of the bone?
osteons
320
what is the central hole within an osteon?
osteonic canal
321
what is the osteonic canal a pathway for?
| 3 things
blood vessels
lymphatics
nerves
322
what are connective rings of bone tissue?
lamella
323
what are the spaces between lamellae where osteocytes are located?
lacunae
324
what are microscopic canals that connect lacunae to lacunae and lacunae to the osteonic canal?
canaliculi
325
what are the 2 parts/regions of a skeleton?
axial and appendicular
326
what is the central axis of the body?
axial skeleton
327
what are 4 parts of the axial skeleton?
skull
ribs
sternum
vertebral column
328
what are the 6 parts of the vertebrae?
```
cervical
thoracic
lumbar
sacral
caudal
```
329
what is part of the caudal?
coccyx
330
what part of the vertebrae is the neck?
cervical
331
what part of the vertebrae is the upper back/chest?
thoracic
332
what part of the vertebrae is the lower back?
lumbar
333
what part of the vertebrae is the hip?
sacral
334
what part of the vertebrae is the tail?
caudal
335
what part of the vertebrae is the tail bone?
coccyx
336
why is the axial skeleton flexible?
support and protection of nerve cord
337
what are 3 parts of the appendicular skeleton?
bones of appendages
pelvic girdle
pectoral girdle
338
what region is the pectoral girdle?
shoulder
339
what does the pectoral girdle attach?
front appendages to axial skeleton
340
what is in the pectoral girdle?
2 scapulas
| 2 clavicles
341
what is the pelvic girdle fused to?
lower vertebral column
342
what does the pelvic girdle attach?
hind appendages to axial skeleton
343
what is the pelvic girdle?
pelvic bones
344
READ EXAMPLES OF PECTORAL AND PELVIC GIRDLE!!!
READ EXAMPLES OF PECTORAL AND PELVIC GIRDLE!!!
345
what are the 2 types appendages?
forelimb bones
| hindlimb bones
346
what are the 5 parts of the forelimb bones?
```
humerus
radius and ulna
carpals
metacarpals
phalanges
```
347
what is the largest bone?
humerus
348
what is the forearm?
radius and ulna
349
what is the wrist?
carpals
350
what is the hand?
metacarpals
351
what are the fingers?
phalanges
352
what do the forelimb bones make up? hindlimb bones?
arms
| legs
353
what are the 6 parts of the hindlimb bones?
```
femur
patella
tibia and fibula
tarsals
metatarsals
phalanges
```
354
what is the largest bone in the body?
femur
355
what is the thigh?
femur
356
what is the knee cap?
patella
357
what is below the knee/ shin region?
tibia and fibula
358
what is the ankle?
tarsals
359
what is the foot?
metatarsals
360
what enhances movements?
joints
361
what are 3 examples of joints?
ankle
wrist
shoulder
362
what do joints help with?
better contact with substrate
363
what 3 things allow for more advanced locomotor skills?
joints
bones
skeletal muscles
364
what is another name for the circulatory system?
cardiovascular system
365
what system involves the movement of materials through the body?
circulatory system
366
what type of tissue is blood?
connective
367
what is blood used as?
transporting mechanism
368
what are the 2 major parts of blood?
plasma
| formed elements
369
how much of blood's volume is plasma?
55%
370
how much of plasma is water?
90%
371
what is the other 10% of plasma made of?
| 9 things
```
proteins
amino acids
glucose
enzymes
hormones
dissolved gases
intracellular fluids
extracellular fluids
interstitial fluids
```
372
what is fluid within the cell?
intracellular fluid
373
what is fluid outside the cell?
extracellular fluid
374
what is fluid between the cells and is tissue fluid?
interstitial fluid
375
what are cells or cell features?
formed elements
376
what are the 3 formed elements?
platelets
leukocytes
erythrocytes
377
which formed element deals with clotting?
platelets
378
what are leukocytes?
white blood cells
379
list 3 characteristics of leukocytes
nucleated
7,000 per cc of blood
body's immune response
380
what are the 5 types of leukocytes?
```
neutrophils
lymphocytes
monocytes
eosinophils
basophils
```
381
which leukocyte eats other cells?
neutrophils
382
which leukocyte is the first group of white blood cells to enter an inflamed area?
neutrophils
383
which leukocyte has b-cells and t-cells and are involved with immunity?
lymphocytes
384
where are b-cells produced?
bone marrow
385
where are b-cells highly developed?
plasma
386
where are t-cells?
thymus
387
what do t-cells do?
kill cancer cells
388
which leukocyte are cell eaters?
monocytes
389
which leukocyte limits inflammation?
eosinophils
390
which leukocyte limits inflammation and regulate permeability of blood cells?
basophils
391
what are erythrocytes?
red blood cells
392
are erythrocytes nucleated or anucleated?
anucleated
393
what are erythrocytes involved in?
transport of oxygen
394
where are erythrocytes produced?
red marrow
395
what is the life span of a erythrocyte?
120 days
396
how many erythrocytes are there per cc of blood?
5,000,000
397
what do erythrocytes contain?
hemoglobin
398
what is an iron containing protein that binds oxygen?
hemoglobin
399
how many hemoglobin molecules are in each red blood cell?
200,000
400
how many depressions are there in a red blood cell? what is this called?
2
| biconcave
401
what are blood vessels?
tubes carrying blood
402
what are blood vessels lines with?
simple squamous epithelium
403
what are the 3 major groups of blood vessels?
arteries (& arterioles)
capillaries
veins (& venules)
404
what blood vessel carries blood away from the heart?
arteries
405
which is thicker, veins or arteries?
arteries
406
why are arteries thicker?
because of a greater pressure
407
what kind of layer is an artery in the wall?
smooth muscle
408
which blood vessel is the smallest diameter?
capillaries
409
how are capillaries arranged? what is it called?
in clusters
| capillary beds
410
where does gas exchange occur?
capillaries
411
how thick are capillaries?
1 cell thick (epithelium)
412
is energy expended in gas exchange?
no
413
where is the site of gas exchange?
between blood and organs
414
what diffuses out of the vessel and what diffuses in during gas exchange?
oxygen-out
| carbon dioxide- in
415
what blood vessel carries blood toward the heart?
veins
416
why are veins thinner?
no surging blood
| low pressure
417
do veins have valves? who has the best valve system?
some
| mammals
418
LOOK AT CROSS SECTION OF VESSELS!!!
LOOK AT CROSS SECTION OF VESSELS!!!
419
what are all blood vessels lined with
simple squamous epithelium
420
overall, a heart has increased in what/ decreased in what?
increased in number of chambers and in size
| decreased in number of pseudochambers
421
what kind of advances has the heart had?
evolutionary
422
how many chambers(and which ones) and pseudochambers(and which ones) are in a fish heart?
2 chambers- atrium and ventricle
| 2 pseudochambers- conus arteriosus and sinus venosus
423
how many chambers(and which ones) and pseudochambers(and which ones) are in an amphibian heart?
3 chambers- 2 atria and 1 ventricle
| 2 pseudochambers- conus arteriosus and sinus venosus
424
how many chambers(and which ones) and pseudochambers(and which ones) are in a reptile heart?
3 chambers- 2 atrium and 1 ventricle
| 1 or 0 pseudochambers- sinus venosus
425
how many chambers(and which ones) and pseudochambers(and which ones) are in a crocadillian heart?
4 chambers- 2 atrium and 2 ventricle
| 0 pseudochambers
426
how many chambers(and which ones) and pseudochambers(and which ones) are in a bird and mammal heart?
4 chambers- 2 atria and 2 ventricles
| 0 pseudochambers
427
which do the cells in the right atrium make up?
pace maker
428
what are the cells that make the pace maker?
remnants of sinus venosus
429
LOOK AT HEART DIAGRAMS!!!
LOOK AT HEART DIAGRAMS!!!
430
which chamber is thinner? thicker?
atrium
| ventricle
431
of the left and right ventricles, which is thicker?
left
432
why is the left ventricle thicker?
it is the major pump for blood
433
where dies the right ventricle conduct blood to?
lungs
434
what is the pulmonary circuit? which ventricle?
heart to lungs to heart
| right
435
where does the left side of the heart conduct blood to?
the body
436
what kind of circuit is it when blood is pumped to the body?
systemic
437
what is the heart valve between the atrium and ventricle?
atrioventricular valves
438
what is the function of the atrioventricular valves?
prevent the back flow of blood into the atrium as the ventricles contract
439
what are the 2 types of heart valves?
atrioventricular valves
| semilunar valves
440
what are the 2 types of semilunar valves?
pulmonary
| aortic
441
which semilunar valve is at the junction of the right atrium and pulmonary arteries?
pulmonary SV
442
which semilunar valve is at the junction of the left ventricle and aorta?
aortic SV
443
what is the function of the semilunar valves?
prevent back flow into the ventricle when the ventricle relaxes
444
what carries deoxygenated blood?
vena cavae
445
LOOK AT PICTURE OF BLOOD FLOW!!!
LOOK AT PICTURE OF BLOOD FLOW!!!
446
What initiates the heart beat?
sinoatrial nodes
447
what are the sinoatrial nodes remnants of?
sinus venosus
448
where are the sinoatrial nodes located?
inside the right atrium
449
what is composed of specialized muscle cells?
nodal tissue
450
what is the nodal tissue capable of?
spontaneous contraction
451
does the modal tissue require input from the nervous system?
no
452
what are all muscles specialized for?
contraction
453
what is the function of muscle tissue?
movement
454
what are the 4 characteristics of muscle tissue?
irritability
contractility
extensibility
elasticity
455
what are the 3 types of muscle?
cardiac
smooth
skeletal
456
how are muscles classified?
| 3 things
```
structure
function
control mechanisms
```
457
how is skeletal muscle formed?
by fusion of multiple cells in the embryo
458
how are muscle fibers arranged?
parallel to each other
459
what are 5 characteristics of muscle fibers?
long
multinucleated
voluntary
striated
460
what does striated mean?
banded appearance
461
what are the 3 connective tissue investments?
epimysium
perimysium
endomysium
462
what is a collection of muscle fibers bound by connective tissue?
fascicle
463
which connective tissue investment covers external surface of a muscle?
epimysium
464
which connective tissue investment invades muscle and organizes muscle fibers into groups? what are these groups called?
perimysium
| fascicles
465
what is a collection of muscle fibers bound by connective tissue?
fascicle
466
which connective tissue investment invades muscle fascicle and surrounds each muscle fiber?
endomysium
467
what is an individual muscle cell?
muscle fiber
468
what is a cylindrical bundle of contractile protein?
myofibrils
469
what is tightly packed within myofibrils?
myofilaments
470
what are the 3 thin filaments?
actin
tropomyosin
troponin
471
which thin filament is formed by 2 intertwined helical chains?
actin
472
what does each actin molecule contain?
a binding site
473
which thin filament is a rope-like protein?
tropomyosin
474
what does tropomyosin wrap around?
actin filament
475
what does tropomyosin block?
myosin binding sites in relaxed muscle fibers
476
what is the most complex of the 3 thin filaments?
troponin
477
what are the 3 types of troponin?
TnI
TnT
TnC
478
which troponin binds to actin?
TnI
479
which troponin binds to tropomyosin?
TnT
480
which troponin binds calcium?
TnC
481
what is the thick filament?
myosin
482
what is the shape of an individual myosin molecule?
golf-club shaped
483
what is the structural and function unit of skeletal muscle?
sarcomere
484
how far to myofibrils extend?
the entire length of muscle fiber
485
do thick and thin filaments overlap? what does the arrangement impart?
yes
| striated appearance
486
what filament is anchored to the z-line?
actin
487
what is the region of muscle fiber from z-line to z-line?
sarcomere
488
what happens to sarcomeres when muscles contract?
they shorten
489
what are proteins that anchor thin filaments?
z-line
490
what contains portions of thin filaments that do not overlap thick filaments?
I Band
491
what is a wide band of myosin?
A Band
492
what is the narrow region in the center of the A Band and the space between the 2 sets of thin filaments?
H Zone
493
what is in the center of the H Zone that links adjacent thick filaments?
M Line
494
what is the plasma membrane of muscle fiber?
sarcolemma
495
what is the invaginations of sarcolemma and allow for rapid spread of muscle action potentials?
transverse tubules
496
what is a specialized endoplasmic reticulum and stores and releases calcium ions?
sarcoplasmic reticulum
497
what is the sliding filament mechanism?
when sarcomeres shorten and thin filaments slide past stationary thick filaments
498
what are the 4 sliding filament mechanisms?
calcium binding
power stroke
detachment
resetting
499
what happens in calcium binding?
| 2 things
Ca2+ released from sarcoplasmic reticulum
| myosin heads bind to actin
500
what 3 things happen during power stroke?
Pi released from myosin
myosin heads pull actin filaments inward
ADP released from myosin
501
what 2 things happen during detachment?
ATP binds to myosin
| myosin heads detach from actin
502
what 3 things happen during resetting?
ATP --> ADP + Pi
provides energy to reposition myosin heads
ADP and Pi remain attached to myosin
503
what is a neuron that transmits a signal from CNS for muscle contraction?
motor neuron
504
what is the space between motor neuron and sarcolemma of muscle fiber?
synaptic cleft
505
READ SYNAPTIC CLEFT EVENTS!!!
READ SYNAPTIC CLEFT EVENTS!!!
506
READ CARDIAC MUSCLE!!!
READ CARDIAC MUSCLE!!!
507
READ SMOOTH MUSCLE!!!
READ SMOOTH MUSCLE!!!
508
what do dense bodies attach to?
sarcolemma
509
wha do dense bodies function as?
z-line
510
what inserts into dense bodies?
intermediate filaments and thin filaments
511
what kind of appearance do contracting cells have?
corkscrew
512
why do contracting cells have a corkscrew appearance?
interactions between dense bodies, thin filaments, and intermediate filaments
