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Theriogenology > Exam 3- Cooowwwssss > Flashcards

Exam 3- Cooowwwssss Flashcards

1
Q

T/F normal uterine tubes are palpable in a cow

A

False, unless there is pathology

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2
Q

What parts (stages) of follicles are palpable in a cow’s ovary

A

Tertiary follicles, corpus hemorrhagicum, corpus luteum

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3
Q

Explain the hormones involved in the positive feedback system between the ovaries and the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary

A

The ovaries release estradiol which stimulates the hypothalamus to release GnRH which acts on the anterior pituitary to release FSH and LH which act on the ovary to stimulate follicular genesis

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4
Q

Which hormone comes from the ovary and results in negative feedback on the hypothalamus (and thus the release of GnRH)

A

Progesterone from the CL (Also when progesterone is high estradiol will act as inhibitory)

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5
Q

At what phase of the estrus cycle is estradiol released from the ovary

A

Later proestrus (advanced follicular stage)

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6
Q

At what stage of the estrus cycle is progesterone released by the corpus luteum

A

Luteal phase (metestrus and diestrus)

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7
Q

How long is the average bovine estrus cycle and how many phases does it have

A

21 days- follicular phase (2-3 days) and luteal phase

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8
Q

What hormones are increasing/ high during the follicular phase and which hormone is decreasing

A

Estradiol, LH, and FSH are increasing and progesterone is decreasing (luteolysis)

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9
Q

What causes estradiol to increase in proestrus in the follicular phase

A

Developing follicles (create positive feedback to cause a GnRH surge in the hypothalamus)

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10
Q

The dominant follicle is producing estradiol with other follicles but what hormone is the dominant follicle also producing

A

Inhibit to suppress FSH and suppress the formation of other follicles

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11
Q

At what specific phase does estradiol peak

A

Estrus

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12
Q

What are secondary signs of estrus

A

Clear vaginal discharge, vulvar edema, vaginal hyperemia, increased physical activity

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13
Q

What induces ovulation and when does ovulation occur

A

The high levels of LH and ovulation occurs 12 hours after the end of estrus

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14
Q

What converts the corpus hemorrhagicum to a corpus luteum

A

Pulses of LH

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15
Q

What signals the start of metestrus and what hormone is increasing during this time, how long is metestrus

A

Ovulation and progesterone begins to increase, metestrus is 3-5 days

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16
Q

During diestrus progesterone is high, but what other hormones are released in low frequency pulses

A

FSH and LH to stimulate follicular development

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17
Q

What action does progesterone have on the myometrium

A

Relaxation to create a quiescent uterus

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18
Q

Along with progesterone, what other hormone is released by the corpus luteum

A

Oxytocin

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19
Q

What does oxytocin stimulate the release of

A

PGF2 alpha from the endometrium

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20
Q

What does PGF2 alpha do

A

Causes luteolysis (destruction of CL) which results in a decrease in progesterone

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21
Q

T/F many follicles may develop but only one becomes the dominant ovulatory follicle which the rest undergo atresia

A

True

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22
Q

T/F follicles are developing throughout the estrus cycle but the one that becomes the dominant follicle can fully develop to ovulation because progesterone is high

A

False progesterone must be low for the follicle to develop fully

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23
Q

T/F using the observation method of pregnancy diagnosis is cost-effective in the long run

A

False, it is not as reliable. It doesn’t require much training but it lacks in sensitivity and specificity which increases costs in the long run. Also if you are looking for a non-return to estrus, there are lots of things that can cause that, not just pregnancy (ovarian cysts, hydrometra, metritis, poor nutrition, etc.) Also, some pregnant females can show behavioral estrus

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24
Q

What is the most common and accurate method of pregnancy detection in cows

A

Trans-rectal palpation

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25
Q

What are the 4 cardinal signs of pregnancy in a cow when doing trans-rectal palpation

A

Membrane slip, amniotic vesicle, placentomes, presence of a fetus

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26
Q

In the gravid uterine horn, how early can you feel the chorioallantoic membrane slip on palpation

A

35 days

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27
Q

Approximately when can you first feel an amniotic vesicle in a heifer vs. a cow

A

At day 28 in a heifer and day 32 in a cow

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28
Q

At what point does the amniotic vesicle lose its turgidity and elongates to become the fetus

A

60-65 days

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29
Q

When are fetal placentomes able to be palpated

A

75-80 Days

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30
Q

Will placentomes be larger at the beginning or later on in gestation

A

They increase in size as gestation advances (and with location, they are more consistent in size cranial to the cervix)

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31
Q

What should you do to ensure you are not getting a false positive when palpating for placentomes

A

Always count more than 3 of them present

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32
Q

The fetus is resting on the abdominal floor at how many months

A

5th-6th month

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33
Q

T/F the uterine horns will be symmetric during pregnancy

A

False, one is larger

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34
Q

At what day does the pregnant cow’s cervix fix and the uterus is difficult to retract

A

90 d

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35
Q

What can you palpate to tell if there is increased blood flow to the pregnant cow’s uterus (secondary sign of pregnancy)

A

The fremitus of the middle uterine artery

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36
Q

At what day can you tell if there is a heartbeat detectable on ultrasound of an embryo

A

24-26 days

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37
Q

What is a good test for the earliest detection of pregnancy

A

Trans-rectal ultrasonography (day 24-26)

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38
Q

Is progesterone testing practical for pregnancy testing of cattle

A

Its better in non-pregnant cows so it isn’t the most practical (progesterone is produced throughout pregnancy)

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39
Q

What is a good early pregnancy blood test

A

Testing for Bovine Pregnancy-Specific Protein B (bPSBP test)

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40
Q

What are the 3 stages of parturition

A
  1. Cervix Dilation (6-12 hours) and eventually rupture of chorioallantois
  2. Fetal expulsion (2-4 hours)
  3. Placental expulsion (1-24 hours)
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41
Q

How much should the cervix be dilated 1 week prepartum vs. at parturition

A

1 week Pre-partum 2-4 fingers, at parturition 12 cm

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42
Q

What is the normal presentation of a fetus and which presentation may be normal

A

Cranial longitudinal and caudal longitudinal

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43
Q

What is the normal position and posture of the fetus

A

Dorso-sacral and limbs, head and neck extended

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44
Q

What is the number one cause of dystocia in cows

A

Fetal maternal disproportion

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45
Q

What is the difference between primary and secondary uterine inertia

A

Primary is the failure of the myometrium to normally contract due to like a hormonal defect or hypocalcemia
Secondary is the exhaustion of the myometrium after prolonged effort

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46
Q

Should an ebolic be one of the first things you grab in cases of dystocia

A

No! You should figure out the cause, these are drugs to cause uterine contractions (ex. Oxytocin) so you might cause damage

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47
Q

If you are trying to correct fetal head extension what should you use and not use

A

You can use a head snare or you fingers or eye hooks but don’t use a chain around the mandible

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48
Q

When is hock flexion a problem

A

When there is a caudal presentation of the fetus

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49
Q

What is proper chain placement on a calf to facilitate pulling it

A

First loop in the fetlock and second loop in the pastern

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50
Q

T/F you should rotate the fetus during traction (when pulling) to get the hips out

A

True

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51
Q

What are contraindications for a fetotomy

A

The fetus is still alive
Uterine torsion
Birth canal obstructed
Transverse dorsal presentation

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52
Q

You should do a C-section if you need more than how many cuts in a fetotomy

A

4

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53
Q

Which tool is used for a percutaneous vs. subcutaneous amputations in a fetotomy
What is a distinct difference in the methods

A

Percutaneous uses the fetotome and subcutaneous uses the hoe blade
Percutaneous can have sharp edges of bone that can cause uterine tears

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54
Q

T/F discharge that is bloody is abnormal in the post-partum period

A

False, discharge is normal during this time and can be dark brown to red to white
Unless the discharge smells gross or there are systemic signs

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55
Q

What are the 3 things that occur with uterine involution

A

Decrease in uterine size, increase in tone, abscesses of fluid in the uterus

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56
Q

Which cows, dairy or beef involute their uterus quicker and which ovulate quicker

A

Beef involute faster (21 days grossly vs. 30) but dairy cows ovulate faster (<21 days vs. 45-60)

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57
Q

FSH increases and the first follicular wave is typically how many days post-partum

A

10-14 days

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58
Q

Most cows expell the placenta by ___ hours and after ___ hours it is considered retained

A

6 hours and >24 hours

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59
Q

How does primary retention of fetal membranes differ from secondary

A

Primary- lack of detachment
Secondary- difficulty in expelling already detached fetal membranes

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60
Q

T/F retained fetal membranes are often spontaneously expulsed after a week by enzymatic proteolysis and necrosis of the caruncles and cotyledons

A

True (but you want to prevent the inflammation and other conditions this can cause in the cow)

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61
Q

What is the main reason for retention of fetal membranes

A

Deficiency of collagenase

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62
Q

Deficiency of what can cause retention of fetal membranes (4 correct answers technically)

A

Collagenase, Selenium/Vit E deficiency, Calcium, immunity (immunosuppressive)

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63
Q

What is contraindicated for getting rid of retained fetal membranes

A

Manual removal

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64
Q

Is oxytocin or prostaglandin F2 alpha practical for retention of fetal membranes

A

No

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65
Q

How is antibiotics helpful for treatment of retention of fetal membranes

A

To help reduce incidence of metritis

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66
Q

Should you put antiseptics in the uterus when there is retention of fetal membranes

A

NO! Also contraindicated

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67
Q

Are beef or diary cows more likely to have post-partum uterine infections

A

Diary

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68
Q

What organism is most likely to cause uterine infections

A

E. Coli (and then later trueperella pyogenes comes in)

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69
Q

What is a severe inflammation of all layers of the uterus and is usually within the first week of calving

A

Metritis

70
Q

A cow had a calf about a week ago and has a very thick uterus with fetid discharge. She is running a fever and her milk production is down. What is your concern and how will you treat it

A

Metritis- treat with systemic antibiotics (Ceftiofur, excede) (if it was within the first 72 hours you could do oxytocin it after that not helpful), also fluids, NSAID (fluxamine/banamine), Ca, dextrose are all also possibilities

71
Q

Do we treat metritis with intrauterine antibiotics

A

Not in the US but yes in other countries

72
Q

How is endometritis different than metritis

A

It only impacts the endometrium and there aren’t systemic signs also endometritis can be later post-partum (>21 days)

73
Q

How does clinical vs. subclinical endometritis differ

A

Clinical has vaginal discharge and Subclinical doesn’t have signs but you can see inflammatory cells on cytology

74
Q

T/F if a cow has purulent vaginal discharge you can say she has endometritis

A

False, she might have cervicitis or vaginitis

75
Q

What will you see in a cow with cytological endometritis

A

Increase in PMN (polymononuclear cells)

76
Q

What is the most common organism to cause clinical endometritis

A

Truperella pyogenes (can get E.coli first with metritis to predispose to truperella too)

77
Q

A farm is having issues with long post partum intervals. What are you concerned about and should be looking for

A

Endometritis, look for cows having purulent vaginal discharge or do cytologies of the uterus to look for cytologic/Subclinical endometritis

(Could also say campylobacter or tritrichomonas)

78
Q

What bacteria causes Subclinical endometritis

A

Trick question- none!
We think it is immunodeficiency from negative energy balance, oxidative stress, or alterations in the Microbiome

79
Q

What is the recommended diagnostic for diagnosing endometritis

A

Endometrial Cytology

80
Q

T/F as you get farther from post-partum the cut-off window for endometritis and acceptable percentage of PMNs on cytology gets larger

A

False it gets smaller (18% 21-35 days, 10% 35-45 days, 5% >45 days)

81
Q

What is the treatment for endometritis

A

Antibiotics and prostaglandin F2 alpha (yet no strong evidence for any treatments)

82
Q

What is the treatment for Subclinical endometritis

A

Intrauterine tx with cephapirin and PGF2 alpha

83
Q

What must be present for there to be a pyometra

A

A corpus luteum (progesterone)

84
Q

What is the treatment for a pyometra

A

2 doses of PGF2 alpha- luteolysis and estrus

85
Q

What is the difference between chromosomal, gonadal, and phenotypic sex

A

Chromosomal is determined at fertilization
Gonadal depends on the chromosomal sex- its what the germ cells develop (testes or ovaries)
Phenotypic is what we see- the external genitalia

86
Q

What factors and hormones are secreted to make a male

A

Testis determining factor form the Y chormosome—> SRY and SOX9 produced—> testes develop and serotonin cells secrete anti-mullarian hormone—> development of phenotypic sex

87
Q

What factors or hormones are (or are not) secreted to make a female

A

No Y chromosome so no TDF—> Wnt 4 and FoxL 2–> ovaries develop —> no AMH—> female repro tract forms

88
Q

What duct regresses if AMH is present

A

The paramesonephric duct

89
Q

Why do freemartins occur

A

Twins sharing blood supply which exposes both to AMH and other cellular elements
A freemartin is a blood cell chimera meaning an individual has two cell types from 2 separate zygotes

90
Q

A prominent tuft of hair at the vulva, and increased ano-genital area of a calf may indicate this calf is what

A

A freemartin

91
Q

What lab test can you do to detect freemartinism

A

PCR on the blood looking for XX and XY in same animal

92
Q

What disease is known as White Heifers disease and can cause the absence of a uterine horn or imperforate hymen

A

Segmental aplasia of the Müllerian ducts

93
Q

What can segmental aplasia of the Mullerian ducts predispose a cow to

A

Hydrometra, hydrosalpinx, mucovagina (basically the malformations can cause accumulation of fluid or mucus depending on the location)

94
Q

Should you breed a cow with segmental aplasia of the Müllerian ducts

A

No, it is an autosomal recessive gene so she shoudl be culled

95
Q

Incomplete fusion of the Müllerian ducts is also known as what and can cause what

A

Uterus didelphys, can result in a double external cervical os (can cause dystocias)

96
Q

What is a differential diagnosis for ovarian hypoplasia

A

Atrophy by nutritional deficiency (ovarian hypoplasia is an inherited condition)

97
Q

The lack of what hormone will cause acyclicity (anestrus)

A

Lack of LH surge

98
Q

What is it called when there is a lack of GnRH and LH surge

A

Anestrus (no estrus, ovulation, or CL and inhibition of GnRH and LH)

99
Q

Name the 9 causes of anestrus

A
  1. High milk yield
  2. Under nutrition
  3. Negative energy balance
  4. Metabolic diseases (ketosis, mastitis)
  5. Uterine issues- retained fetal membranes, Dystocia, puerperal metritis, pyometra
  6. Mastitis
  7. Presence of a calf
  8. Heat Stress
  9. Poor heat detection
100
Q

What drug implant is used to synchronize cows to end anestrus and be able to be bred together

A

Progestagen controlled internal drug release

101
Q

What is it called when there is a follicle without any active luteal tissue that has a diameter of at least 20mm and is interfering with cyclicity

A

Cystic ovarian follicle

102
Q

Lack of LH surge causes what 2 acquired conditions of infertility

A

Anestrus and ovarian cysts

103
Q

If you have loss of negative feedback by Progesterone (P4) or decreased sensitivity of hypothalamus and anterior pituitary to estradiol (E2) what can result

A

Formation of ovarian cyst

104
Q

Which type of cyst is thin walled vs. thick walled

A

Follicular cysts are thin walled and luteal cysts are thick walled

105
Q

Ovarian cysts can cause cows to do what

A

Not exhibit estrus or Nymphomania (frequent and prolonged estrus- less common)

106
Q

In cows with cysts do they produce LH? If so how

A

Yes its just produced in small pulses in high frequency (why the cyst just keeps growing and doesn’t ovulate like a normal follicle)

107
Q

The lack of an LH surge for a follicular cysts can be because of a lack of negative feedback from what

A

Low progesterone levels so there isn’t sufficient negative feedback on LH

108
Q

Follicular cysts vs. luteal cysts secrete what

A

Follicular cysts secrete estradiol and luteal cysts secrete progesterone

109
Q

What are the three mainstays of treatment for ovarian cysts

A

Increase the secretion of progesterone or give progesterone, decrease the pulses of LH, sensitize the hypothalamus to estradiol

110
Q

What do you give to treat ovarian cysts

A

Give GnRH or exogenous progesterone—> lutenization of dominant cyst and ovulation—>form a corpus luteum to produce progesterone to reduce pulses of LH and sensitize hypothalamus to PGF2alpha—> cysts regresses

OR you can place a CIDR (progesterone implant)

111
Q

How long is gestation in the cow

A

283 days +/- 14 days

112
Q

At what day of gestation is there the switch between calling it an embryo then fetus

A

At day 42

113
Q

What is defined as a stillbirth vs. abortion

A

A fetus that is natured fully in utero and is born dead
An abortion is termination of pregnancy resulting in fetal death and expulsion of the fetus

114
Q

Which type of fetal death will result in CL persistence but causes chronic endometrial damage and poor prognosis

A

Fetal maceration

115
Q

What does brucellosis cause in pregnant cattle

A

Abortion after 5 months, weak calves, retained fetal membranes, metritis

116
Q

In bulls what does brucellosis cause

A

Orchitis and Epididymitis

117
Q

Why does Brucella persist so well and what does this mean for treatment

A

It is a facultative intracellular bacteria so the infection persists indefinitely in phagocytes and lymphoid tissue so there is no treatment, cow much be killed

118
Q

What is the transmission of Brucella

A

Ingestion of the placenta, uterine or fetal fluids, or fomites

119
Q

A cow in a herd in Montana has had an abortion and the placenta has a dry necrosis that could be described as Moroccan leather. What disease might this cow have and how would you diagnose it

A

Brucellosis, isolate the bacteria from the fetus (abomasum content or lung), placenta, or uterine fluids

120
Q

T/F there is a vaccine for brucellosis but it is not given because it interferes with the serological test

A

False, the vaccine does not interfere with the serological test

121
Q

What is the most widespread zoonotic disease and can cause septicemia, nephritis which result in non-reproductive losses in cattle

A

Leptospirosis

122
Q

What is the host-adapted Leptospira serovar for cattle and what does it do in cows

A

Leptospira borgpetersenii hardjo-bovis it causes persistent infections but less clinical disease

123
Q

What leptospira can cause worse disease and abortion storms in cattle

A

Other Leptospira serovars from other animals

124
Q

Where does leptospira colonize once its infected a host to cause leptospiruria (long infection)

A

The kidneys and genital tract

125
Q

Cattle that live with pigs in a pen that has a pond for them to enjoy are having issues with needing repeat breeding and having prolonged interval to conception, and sporatic abortions and weak calves. What might be the problem

A

Infection with leptospira serovar Hardjo

126
Q

Is there a vaccine for lepto?

A

Yes but if the prevalence is high you may need multiple vaccinations a year

127
Q

Which disease can cause encephalitis, placentitis and thus sporadic abortions in the last trimester, neonatal septicemia, and metritis and septicemia

A

Listeriosis

128
Q

How does an animal contract listeria

A

Ingestion of contaminated feed, often rotten hay or silage

129
Q

What 2 diseases can cause foci of necrosis in the liver and spleen

A

Listeria and Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis (herpesvirus)

130
Q

Is there a vaccine for listeria

A

No

131
Q

Why is Campylobacter really good at growing and living in preputial folds and what does this mean for bulls

A

It is microaerophilic so bulls are asymptomatic carriers

132
Q

What are 2 diseases that can cause early abortions (that aren’t viral causes)

A

Campylobacter and tritrichomonas

133
Q

Which campylobacter strain causes infertility, endometritis, sporadic abortion, salpingitis

A

Campylobacter fetus venerealis

134
Q

If a herd breaks out with campylobacter what recommendations can you make

A

Break from breeding for this year or switch to AI

135
Q

If you see that a cow is having an interestrus interval of 35 days (or is slightly increased) what must this mean , and what bacteria could be causing this

A

That there is embryonic death, campylobacter

136
Q

How do you diagnose Campylobacter

A

Isolation in microaerophilic media in Clark’s media from preputial scrapings, fetal tissue, vaginal mucus or PCR

137
Q

Is there a vaccine for campylobacter

A

Yes

138
Q

Do bulls infected with tritrichomonas have any clinical signs

A

Not usually

139
Q

What are the herd signs that tritrichomonas may be present

A

Early abortions (3-5 mon.), poor pregnancy rate and repeat breeders, pyometra (similar to campylobacter)

140
Q

What is the treatment for tritrichomonas

A

Unfortunately slaughter, there isn’t an approved treatment for bulls
Cows- sexual rest for 3 cycles and they will clear the infection and can give vaccine to shorted recovery

141
Q

What causes abortions around 5-6 mon in cattle or stillborn or weak calves and encephalomyelitis and myositis in dogs

A

Neosporosis caninum (protozoa)

142
Q

What are the three infectious stages of neospora and what do they do

A

Oocysts- infecting form
Tachyzoites- trans-placental infection
Bradyzoites- tissue cysts in nervous tissue (brain, spinal cord, nerves)

143
Q

What are the definitive hosts for neospora caninum

A

Dogs (duh)- pass oocytes in feces

144
Q

How do you diagnose neospora caninum

A

IHC for parasites in fetus and placenta or serological evidence (PCR)

145
Q

A pregnant cow with Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus can result in what

A

A persistently infected calf

146
Q

T/F most BVDV cases are clinical showing fever depression, diarrhea, respiratory signs, thrombocytopenia, and lymphopenia, abortions, stillbirths, congenital defects (cerebellar hypoplasia), embryonic losses

A

False, most infections are Subclinical and severe clinical disease is usually from more virulent strains but those are some of the clinical signs you would see in those cases

147
Q

T/F there is a vaccine for BVDV

A

Yes and it is recommended to use it

148
Q

What causes abortion >4 months, pneumonia in young animals, encephalitis, and infectious pustular vulvovaginitis

A

Bovine herpes virus (Infectious Bovine Rhinotracheitis)

149
Q

How is BHV-1 maintained in a herd

A

It can go into latency in the trigeminal neuron

150
Q

Is there a vaccine for BHV-1

A

Yes good for prevention of EED and abortion

151
Q

When should you vaccinate cows you will be breeding

A

60 days pre-partum and 30 days post-partum

152
Q

When should you vaccinate heifers you will be breeding

A

At least twice (and 3-4 weeks) before breeding

153
Q

What type of idenitfication should a bull have

A

A permanent one like a tattoo or brand

154
Q

Why is it important to check things like the eyes and walking on a bull

A

The bull must be able to see the cows in the field and can’t be lame, must be able to walk to the cows and mount them also some foot and leg problems are hereditary

155
Q

What amount of asymmetry between testis is acceptable

A

<25%

156
Q

If the testis has some dermatitis is this okay?

A

No any source of inflammation can impact sperm development

157
Q

If there is testicular degeneration what will the testis feel like

A

Smaller and softer

158
Q

If a 2 year old bull has a persistent frenulum is this a problem

A

Yes, some immature bulls may have it before they fully mature but if it is retained that is a problem and this bull should not be bred

159
Q

T/F you can palpate the bulbourethral glands, prostate, vesicular glands, and ampulla all on a rectal

A

False, you can’t palpate the bulbourethral glands

160
Q

Vesiculitis causes enlargement and excessive firmness of the vesicular glands more commonly in what age of bull

A

Young (<2 years) or older bulls (>9 years)

161
Q

T/F scrotal circumference is heritable

A

True

162
Q

T/F scrotal circumference is correlated with testicular weight, sperm production, and semen quality

A

True

163
Q

In a herd of yearling bulls, a few of the bulls have slightly smaller scrotal circumferences. Should you worry or will they likely catch up to the others?

A

They won’t likely catch up

164
Q

What are acceptable sizes for scrotal circumference in yearling bulls (12-15 mo) and >24 mo and where do you take the measurement

A

Yearlings- >/=30cm
>24 mon >/= 34 cm
Measure around the greatest diameter

165
Q

What are examples of very good sperm counts and semen color and poor

A

750 mill-1 bill/ml of sperm with creamy, grainy semen is very good
<250 mill/ml semen with translucent semen is poor

166
Q

A sperm sample you are examining for motility has sperm swimming in slow swirls and eddies, what would you grade this sample

A

Good, if it was very good it would have rapid dark swirls but if there was no swirls or little cell movement it would be fair to poor

167
Q

For individual motility sperm scores what would be a very good score and a poor for % of sperm moving linearly across the field

A

> 80% is very good, <40% is poor

168
Q

Where is the origin of the abnormality if a sperm has head or mid-piece defects vs. tail defects

A

Head or mid-piece- testis (spermatogenesis)
Tail defects- Epididymis (maturation and storage)

169
Q

What is the minimum % of normal morphology you should see when evaluating sperm

A

Want more than 70% normal

170
Q

If a bull is a satisfactory potential breeder on its BSE this correlates to meaning the bull is fertile

A

No, but if the bull is an unsatisfactory potential breeder it would be expected that his use will result in poor fertility

171
Q

What are 5 things that would mean a bull would get the classification of satisfactory potential breeder on a BSE

A

Optimum physical soundness, no physical hereditary defects, optimum scrotal circumference for age, >30% progressive motility, > 70% normal morphology

172
Q

When should the BSE be completed

A

Every year on the bull 2 months before the breeding season

Theriogenology (1 decks)

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