Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM


Top Flashcards (Certified)
All Flashcards

Microbiology MS1 > Exam 3/Final > Flashcards

Exam 3/Final Flashcards

(185 cards)

Start Studying
1
Q

Parrot Fever

A

Chlamydophila psittaci

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

Walking pneumoniae

2nd to Mycoplasma pneumoniae as leading cause of walking pneumoniae

A

Chlamydophila pneumoniae

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

Highly contagious hazard to poultry worker, veterinarians. (parakeets, macaws, parrots, cockatiels)

A

Chlamydophila psittaci

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

Acute infection of the lower respiratory tract, dry hacking cough, enlarged liver and spleen, interaction with birds.

A

C. psittaci

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

Unique characteristics to chlamydiacae

A
  • Obligate intracellular
  • Exists as 2 distinct morhpologies (EB + RB)
  • Double layered cell envelope with NO Peptidoglycan
  • Can’t synthesize ATP
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

Infectious form/morphology of chlamydiacae

A 
Elementary Body (EB)
Small and Hardy
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

Intracellular form/morphology of chlamydiacae

A 
Reticulate Body (RB)
Large and Fragile
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

This species reticulate bodies synthesize large amounts of glycogen and inclusion bodies stain blue with iodine

A

C. trachomatis

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

Asymptomatic pneumonia, cold agglutinins in serology, aged 5-15, P1 Adhesions (virulence), lack cell wall

A

Mycoplasma Pneumoniae

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

Asymptomatic pneumonia, adult, MIF assay confirmed, Gram -, Obligate intracellular parasite

A

C. Pneumoniae

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

C. trachomatis serotype (A, B, Ba, and C

A

Trachoma - chronic eye infection

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

C. trachomatis serotype (D-K)

A
  • Inclusion Conjunctivitis (neonatal conjunctivitis

- Non-Gonococcal urethritis (NGU)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

C. trachomatis serotype (L)

A

Lymphogranuloma venerum

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

Tell-tale sign of C. trachomatis

A

Neutrophils and cytoplasmic inclusions in exudate

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

Most common cause of neonatal conjunctivitis in the U.S.

A

C. trachomatis

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

Most common bacterial STD in the U.S.

A

NGU via C. trachomatis

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

Most common STD in the U.S. overall

A

HPV

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

Painful swelling of the inguinal and peri-rectal lymphnodes, replicates in macrophages

A

Lymphogranuloma venerum (LGV)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

Why are Mycoplasma/Ureaplasma resistant to cephalosporins,penicillins, beta-lactams, etc.?

A

Lack a cell wall, smallest free living organism in nature

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

Relentless dry hacking cough, non-purulent otitis media, P1 adhesions (causing persistant cough), x-ray shows unilateral patchy pneumonia in lower lobes

A

Mycoplasma pneumoniae

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

Fried egg appearance on agar, sexual contact

A

Mycoplasma hominins or Mycoplasma genitalium

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

Fried egg apperance, sexual contact, metabolize arginine, post-partum fever

A

Mycoplasma hominins

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

3 possible bugs for (NGU) - non-ghonococcal urethritis

A

Mycoplasma, Ureaplasma, Chlamidophyla

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

No cell wall, cultured on ureaplasma agar, produces urease

A

U. urealyticum - either NGU (men), Post partum fever (women)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Three major pathogenic spirochetes
Treponemes Borellia Leptospira
26
Catalase +
Staph sp. - aureus - sapro - epi
27
Coagulase +
S. Aureus
28
Catalase -
``` Strep sp - pyogenes - agalactiae - pneumoniae - veridans Enterococcus ```
29
Staph strand novobiocin sensitive?
S. Epidermis
30
what is a viral capsid made of
proteins called capsomeres
31
Which viral structure (enveloped or non) is more resistant to environmental conditions?
non-enveloped
32
Constituents of viral envelope?
Lipid membrane Host Cell Glycoprotein spikes (host cell attachment) Note: more susceptible to environmental conditions because membrane can dry/shrivel up
33
How are viruses classified?
type of nucleic acid (RNA/DNA) envelope or not shape of capsid
34
Name 3 Enveloped DNA Viruses Use host cell RNA polymerase to make mRNA
Pox Herpes Hapadna
35
Name 4 Naked DNA Viruses Use host cell RNA polymerase to make mRNA
Papilloma/Papo (ds) Adeno (ds) Parvo (ss) Polyoma
36
Name 2 Naked +RNA Viruses These viruses use themselves as mRNA
Picorna | Calici
37
Name 3 Enveloped +RNA viruses These viruses use themselves mRNA
Toga Flavi Corona
38
Name 6 Enveloped -RNA viruses? These use their own polymerase to make mRNA in the host cell
``` Rhabdo Filo Orthomyxo Paramyxo Bunya Arena ```
39
Which virus is (+/-) and has a double capsid?
Reo
40
Which virus is (+RNA via DNA) and has an envelope?
Retro
41
3 methods of entry of viruses into the host
``` endocytosis (e.g. viropexis) fusion (enveloped viruses) direct injection (possibly naked, capsid left beind) ```
42
How do retroviruses replicate?
They use reverse transcriptase (brought with them) to copy their ssRNA chromosome into cDNA.
43
How will you attack a retrovirus with treatment without hurting the eukaryotic organism?
Target the reverse transcriptase, because it is specific to the virus (reverse transcriptase inhibitor)
44
What does it mean to have a latent viral infection?
After initial infection the virus becomes inacitve. - can incorporate into the host cell genome - can sit quietly in the cytoplasm and freely replicate, waiting for representation (e.g. shingles/herpes in response to stress) - representation of symptoms can look different from initial infection
45
Virus modes of transmission
``` oral droplet inhalation direct inoculation (bites, trauma) direct skin contact (lesions, warts) trans-placental sexual organ transplant ```
46
Whats viremia
viruses traveling throughout the body via lymphatics and bloodstream
47
What are the stages of infection for viral pathogens?
Incubation (after exposure, before symptoms) Prodromal (vague symptoms present) Acute (diagnositc symptoms present) Resolution (decrease in severity of symptoms) Convalescence (symptoms largely gone)
48
What is a "lytic" viral infection?
host cell allows virus to replicate until the cell dies
49
Are perstistant chronic infections "lytic"?
No, they release the viral particles without lysing host cells. Just continually release virions.
50
Ebstein Barr (EBV) cancer connection?
Burkitt's Lymphoma
51
Human Papilloma (HPV) cancer connection?
Cervical Cancer
52
Hepatitis B (HBV) cancer connection?
Liver Cancer
53
Hepatitis C (HCV) cancer connection?
Liver Cancer
54
Human Herpes (HHV-8) cancer connection?
Kaposi's sarcoma (latent skin lesions)
55
Human T-Lymphotrophic (HTLV-1) cancer connection?
Adult Leukemia
56
What are the 2 big characteristic cell changes which can help with viral DX?
1. Triggering fusion of cells (multinucleated giant cell, syncitia) 2. Inclusion bodies (e.g. Negri Bodies in cytoplasm - rabies, Owl's eye in nucleus - cytomegalovirus )
57
2 Major pathogenic sp. of Treponemes
T. pallidum (syphilis) | T. carateum (pinta)
58
T. pallidum causes tissue destruction and lesions, what causes these symptoms?
Host immune response
59
What characteristics are common to all DNA viruses? | (Exceptions)?
``` Double Stranded (except parvo) Icosahedral (except pox) Replicate in the nucleus (except pox) ```
60
DNA viruses associated with virion polymerase for replication?
``` All naked + Herpes Paro Papo Adeno Herpes ```
61
DNA viruses NOT associated with virion polymerase for replication?
Enveloped (Except Herpes) Pox Hepadna
62
Connection between B19 and anemia/sickel cell patients?
APLASTIC CRISIS: | B19 = parovirus, depletes RBC precursors (binds P antigen). paroviruses can be very severe in anemic/sickle patient
63
Transmission of B19 parovirus?
respiratory droplets oral secretions across placenta
64
Dx/ Child Prodrome (fever, sore throat, myalgia) Rash (cheeks initially, spreading to extremities, relapses)
B19 parovirus
65
B19 parovirus clinical syndromes
Dx/ Child Prodrome (fever, sore throat, myalgia) Rash (cheeks initially, spreading to extremities, relapses) Dx/ Adult Above possibly + Arthralgia, Arthritis
66
Oncogenic potential of HPV?
Cervical cancer (contain E6 and E7 - bind to our tumor suppressor genes)
67
Why does HPV cause warts
stimulates growth of cell: thickening of basal and prickle layers of the skin and stratum granulosum
68
HPV serotypes 6/11 associated symptoms? 16/18?
6/11 - Condylomata acuminata - Ano/Genital Warts!(90%) 16/18 - Cervical cancer association
69
Papsmear comes back + for Koilocytic Cells/ Koilocytes.. Large clue for?
HPV
70
Vaccine for HPV? Serotypes?
Gardasil - 6, 11, 16, 18
71
If a virus is spread via Fecal/Oral transmission, what characteristic does it likely have?
It must be naked (more resistant form of virus), can survive that route
72
Swimming pool conjunctivitis buzzword
Adenovirus
73
What is special about the Adenovirus vaccine? Unique only to this one.. Hint: Military only
Live; *NON-ATTENUATED, oral. Given only to military personnel for that reason
74
Clinical Syndromes for Adenovirus
``` Variola Major (Smallpox, 15-40% mortality) Variola Minor (1% mortality rate) ```
75
Differentiate Smallpox and Chickenpox (VZV)
Smallpox lesions are all the same because they don't present unless they are fully vescularized? ****FIX THIS CARD
76
Person bought a praiie dog and has smallpox symptoms...
Monkeypox
77
Single nodular lesion forms at point of contact, resembles cutaneous anthrax and associated with sheep and goats?
Orf - Poxvirus
78
The pathogenesis of HBV?
Blood, IV drug use, Sex
79
Chronic HBV pathway, reason for this? | Possible disease outcome?
HBV can go chronic if the host pt. lacks a strong cell-mediated immune response Acute symptoms followed by possible problems down the road - Cirrhosis, Primary Hepatocellular Carcinoma
80
Acute symptoms of HBV?
Jaundice, dark urine, flu-like, anorexia
81
Target of HBV vaccine?
surface antigen HBsAg
82
List the 7 viruses in the Herpesveridae family
``` Herpes simplex -1 (HSV-1) - STD cold sores Herpes simplex - 2 (HSV-2) - STD Varicella-Zoster (VZV) - chicken pox Epstein-Barr (EBV) - Mononucleosis Human Cytomegalovirus (HCMV) - Asymptomatic (causes birth defects) Human herpesvirus - 6 (HHV-6 and 8) - Roseola (6) ```
83
Notable diagnostic clue about glycoproteins in the envelope of Herpesveridae?
Fusion proteins (cell-cell fusion)
84
What is the most notable characteristic of the Herpesveridae family?
Latency - remains in the host for life! Remain in ganglia or white blood cells, depending on the type.
85
HSV-1 latency site
trigeminal ganglia
86
HSV-2 latency site
sacral ganglia
87
VZV latency site
dorsal root ganglia
88
EBV latency site
WBCs (b-cells)
89
CMV latency site
WBCs (monocytes)
90
HHV-6 latency site
WBCs (lymphocytes
91
HSV-1 Disease States (2 major) (3 minor)
``` Gingivostomatitis (Primary orofacial) Cold Sores (Recurrent stomatitis) Ocular Herpes Herpes gladitorium Encephalitis ```
92
Leading cause of viral encephalitis in the U.S.?
HSV-1 (Fatal - 70% mortality rate), Especially beyond neonatal period
93
Tell tale of viral encephalitis (HSV-1 version)
Temporal Lobe encephalitis
94
Most common cause of viral encephalitis in neonates?
HSV-2 (birthing process with infected mother)
95
what is herpes gladiatorum?
known as HSV-1 dermatitis, obtained through contact sports
96
Typical site of lesions for herpes gladiatorum?
Head and neck (can be moved to other areas through infectious sores)
97
Presence of gummas is a tell tale sign of this
Treponemes
98
Two types of HSV-2 infection?
Primary Genital | Recurrent Genital
99
Symptoms of Primary HSV-2
lesions with profuse watery discharge (2-7 days after contact)
100
Symptoms of Recurrent HSV-2
occurs via reactivation in sacral sensory ganglia, presents less severe form of primary symptoms less lesions and shorter duration.
101
Very painful, localized lesions that show up 1-2 times per year and last about 8-10 days.. Dx
HSV-1 (Recurrent stomatitis)
102
3 phases of T. Pallidum
Primary Secondary - Late(Tertiary)
103
Primary phase of T. Pallidum symptoms
3-4wks Painless chancre at innoculation site, begins as papule then erodes to painless ulcer with raised borders. *Ulcer is highly contagious site of replication
104
Secondary phase of T. Pallidum symptoms
4-10 wks Copper-colored rash over Entire Body, "nickel and dime rash" on palms and soles. Patchy Hair-loss "moth-eaten", Highly infectious like the primary. *Condylomata lata" - soft fleshy papules
105
Tertiary phase of T. Pallidum symptoms
3wks - 3mos | Organ/Tissue Destruction
106
Neurosyphilis
Tertiary - T. pallidum | destruction of either brain parenchyma (dementia) or dorsal roots of spinal chord (tabes dorsalis)
107
Gummas
Tertiary - T. pallidum | destructive granulomatous lesions in bones, skin, tissues (treponemes usually not found in the lesion)
108
Difference between early and late Congenital Syphillus
Early: (birth - 2), Extensive cutaneous lesions, Snuffles (mucopurulent rhinitis), osteochondritis of long bones Late: (>2yrs), Cutaneous gummas, Hutchinson Teeth (notched incisors), Respberry molars, saber shins, saddle nose.
109
Where does local replication occur for VZV (chicken pox)?
Respiratory Epithelial Cells
110
What differentiates VZV from Smallpox?
VZV lesions are different sizes and at different stages of development Smallpox lesions are all the same size and same level of development (because they only present when the virus is fully in the presentation phase)
111
What are some long term effects of a zoster reactivation outbreak?
Possible long lasting "neuralgia" | Reactivation in the 'danger' dermatome can cause encephalitits! (Must prophylax- acyclovair?)
112
What is the primary target cell for EBV (mono)
Epithelial cells within the oropharynx, especially parotid glands. (UNDERGO LYTIC Infection - reservoir for virus that can infect/transform B-Cells)
113
Can EBV replicate in B-Cells?
No, EBV can get into/infect B-cells using CD21 marker, however it can't complete replilcation cycle once inside
114
Why are teens most affected by EBV (mono)?
Because it is a disease that attacks B-Cells, and teens have very strong immune systems (lots of B-Cells to infect)
115
What is the reservoir for the EBV?
oropharyngeal epithelial cells
116
Pt. presents with sore throat, serology shows "heterophile IgM antibodies". DX?
EBV (Mono), B-Cells proliferate due to being infected and cause a huge immune response.
117
Common cancers seen in association w/ EBV
Burkitt Lymphoma - usually in jaw (common in africa) Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma Hodgkin Lymphoma
118
CMV can cause a mononucleosis, what makes this mono different from EBV?
The serology shows heterophile (-) antibodies
119
What is the leading viral cause for congenital infections/defects in the U.S.?
Cytomegalovirus
120
Who is at greatest risk of a CMV infection?
Fetus via intrauterine transmission
121
What are common CMV manifestations in the immunosuppressed
Neonates - very severe (birth defects), death | Adults - Pneumonia, Chorioretinitis
122
Common buzz word for CMV presentation?
Owls eye inclusions
123
What is the cause of Roseola?
HHV-6
124
Transmission of HHV-6
Respiratory droplets
125
Replication site of HHV-6?
WBCs (T and B)
126
Prodrome of HHV-6?
Very high fever, Then fever subsides and a RASH presents (WITH NO FEVER)
127
Pt. presents, had a severe fever. After fever subsided and a rash appeared? DX?
HHV-6 - Roseola
128
Raised purple lesions in an HIV patient, viral cause?
HHV-8 - Kaposi's sarcoma..
129
What are the only double stranded RNA viruses?
Reoviurses, RNA (-)
130
Cruise ship associated gastroenteritis?
``` Norwalk virus (Calicivirus family) - Comprimise function of intestinal brush border ```
131
How are calciviruses (norwalk) usually spread?
Usually fecal/oral, careless food handler
132
What is the transmission route of Flaviviridae?
``` Arthopod Vectors - known as the Arboviruses Yellow Fever West Nile St. Louis Japanese Dengue ```
133
Hemmhorragic diseases of Arboviruses/Flaviviridae?
Yellow Fever | Dengue Fever
134
Primary viremia Arboviruses symptoms?
Flu-Like
135
Secondary viremia Arboviruses symptoms?
can infect the brain (encephalitis), liver, skin, and vasculature
136
Viral encephalitis? First think -- HSV-1, but if there are mosquito bites and its summer?
arboviruses
137
Common cold viruses #1 and # 2
``` #1 Rhinovirus #2 Coronavirus ```
138
What are the two big things to remember about the transmission/pathogenesis of Picornaveridae?
DO NOT CAUSE ENTERIC DISEASE(diarrhea) | Transmission is fecal-oral
139
Three major diseases caused by Coxsackieviruses?
Herpangina (vesicular ulcerated lesions around soft palate and uvula) Hand-Foot and Mouth (vesicular lesions in these areas) Pleurodyna (devils grip)
140
What is bacwards/weird about rabies (rhabdovirus) treatment?
We vaccinate after exposure
141
Leg myalgia in prodrome of a virus is tell-tale of? US Southwest Secondary symptoms look like atypical pneumonia
Hantavirus
142
Infant vs adult VIRAL gastroenteritis?
Infant - Rotavirus | Adult - Norwalk virus
143
Epidemic vs Pandemic Flu
Endemic- caused by antigenic drift specific location | Pandemic Flu - caused by antigenic shift (worldwide)
144
Most notable segmented virus? How many segments
Orthomyxos - 8 Segments
145
What is antigenic shift, when referring to orthomyxoviridae, and what is its significance?
When a new viral sub/serotype appears, many people dont have antibodies against it. Can spread rapidly through a susceptible population.
146
Which type of influenza can undergo antigenic shift?
Type A - can infect BOTH animals and humans Types B+C can only infect humans
147
What is antigenic drift?
Can happen in all RNA viruses.. A or B
148
Two big names in paramyxoviridae
Measles and Mumps
149
What are the 5 Classic childhood exanthems?
``` Measles Rubella Roseola 5th Disease Chickenpox ```
150
What is easy about identifying a measles rash?
The three Cs cough conjunctivitis coryza (runny nose) Also will see Koplick's spots (usually in the buccal mucosa) right before the rash
151
Most common complication with measles?
Pneumonia (accounts for 60% of measles deaths)
152
What is a sclerosing pan encephalitis? And what is it like?
SSPE - slow neurological disease like in prions - can take years to present after measles infection
153
What virus is associated with "croup"
Parainfluenza - barking seal cough caused by tracheitis
154
Virus associated with painful, bilateral parotid swelling/ parotitis?
Mumps, lytic so it causes intense inflammation
155
Important associated disease with MUMPS,
Causes orchitis (sterility in men)
156
What is the most frequent cause of fatal respiratory tract infections in infants or young children?
Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV), pneumonia caused in young children Note: adults and older children can get it but they just show the flu...
157
Major pathological worry with RSV?
Mucus plugs and fibrin blocking an airway
158
Transmission vector of Bartonella spp? Disease Name? DX
Cats Cat Scratch Fever Dx/ Warthin Starry Silver Stain Normally only seen in immunocomprimised
159
Transmission vector of Borellia Burgdoferi? Disease Name? DX
Tick (deer and mice) Lyme Disease AB detection Test Western Blot Protein
160
Transmission vector of Borrelia recurrentis? Disease Name? DX
Louse (human body) Relapsing Fever Dx/ Dark Field Microscopy
161
Transmission vector of Brucella spp.? Disease? ** Manifestation (key) DX
Direct contact w/ goats + sheep (aborted fetuses) Brucellosis (Undulant Fever) **** Profuse Sweating Dx/ HISTORY, gram -, cat/ox/urease +
162
Transmission vector of Campylobacter? | Manifestations?
Puppies/Livestock | Bloody Diarrhea, Guillain-Barra syndrome
163
Transmission vector of chlamydophila psittaci? Disease? Dx?
``` Parrots/Other Birds Parrot Fever/ Psittaciosis Dx/ hepato/splenomegaly Ab titer or IFA MIF for confirmation ```
164
Transmission of coxiella burnetti? Disease Name? Dx?
``` (only Rickettsiae with NO VECTOR -- Spores from tick feces or cattle placenta Q Fever DX/ Serology: Acute --> Phase II antigens only Chronic -> Phase I and II antigens ```
165
Transmission vector of Erlichiosis chaffeensis?
Lonestar tick, Dog Tick, Black-legged wood tick Erlichiosis Dx/ HME = chaffeensis (monocytic inclusions) Wright Stained Blood Smear *** Morula or Raspberry Inclusion
166
Transmission vector of Francisella tularensis? Disease DX?
RABBITS, Ticks | Tularemia
167
What are fungal cell walls made up of? | Cell membranes?
Chitin | Ergosterol
168
What agar are fungi most commonly grown on ?
Saouraud Dextrose Agar
169
What is the term used for a fungal infection
mycoses
170
Name the three genera of dermatophytes aka tineas (cutaneous mycoses)
Trichophyton Microsporum Epidermophyton
171
Tinea Corporis
smooth skin
172
Tinea Cruris
groin
173
Tinea Barbae
beard
174
Tinea Unguium
under nails
175
Protozoa are protected from harsh conditions by what? | Evade the immune system via what?
Cyst form allows them to survive harsh envrionments (malaria has no cyst -- needs arthropod vector) Evade immunity through antigenic variation
176
Metazoa are protected by what? | Evade immunity via?
Protected by a tough external layer (cuticle) | Evade immunity via antigenic variation and host cell lysing
177
Cat Bite/ Bi-polar staining
Pasturella Multocida
178
Cat scratch/ Warthin Starry Silver Stain
Bartonella henselae
179
Just Bi-Polar staining (2 bugs)
Pasturella | Yersinia
180
Dog bite/gangrene
Capnocytophaga canimorsus
181
Rat-bite fever/string of beads/fried egg
Streptobacillus moniliformis | rat-bite fever and haverhill fever
182
Contact with pigs/ Triple sugar iron agar
Erysipelothrix Rhusiopathiae
183
Exposure to aborted goat/sheep fetuses, urease positive
Brucella --- Profuse sweating
184
Virulence mechanisms of bubonic plague (yersina pestis) - 3 major
F1 Gene - protein capsule Plasminogen activator (Pla) protease- degrades complement, degrades clots Yop genes: Type III secretion, antiphagocytic
185
Major test to diagnose a prion
Western Blot

Microbiology MS1 (1 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2025 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions