Exam 3 Material Flashcards
(193 cards)
1
Q
Emotions
A
feeling, or affect, that occurs in a state of an interaction that is important to a person, especially to a well-being
-ability to control one’s emotion is key dimension of development
2
Q
Emotional Regulation
A
effectively managing arousal to adapt to circumstances and to reach a goal
3
Q
Arousal involves a state of _______ or ________.
A
alterness; activation
4
Q
Regulation of emotion gradually shifts from ______ sources to _______, ________ sources.
A
external; self-imitated, internal
-w/ increasing age, children improve their use of cognitive strategies for regulating emotions, modulate arousal, minimize negative emotions, and cope w/ stress
5
Q
Emotion-Coaching Parents
A
monitor children’s emotions, view negative emotions as a teaching opportunity, assist them in labeling emotions, and coach them on how to effectively deal w/ emotions
-children are better able to self-soothe, are more effective in regulating negative affect, focus attention better, and have fewer behavioral problems
6
Q
Emotion-Dismissing Parents
A
deny, ignore, or attempt to change negative emotions
-linked w/ poor emotional regulation
7
Q
Emotional Competence
A
linked to management of emotion, resilience, and positive relationships
8
Q
Emotion in Infancy
A
-primary emotions
-self-conscious emotions
-emotional expression is involved in infant’s first social relationships
-contexts can influence emotional regulation
9
Q
Primary Emotions
A
present in humans and in other animals and in humans, they appear in the 1st 6 months
-surprise, interest, joy, anger, sadness, fear, disgust
10
Q
Self-Conscious Emotions
A
require self-awareness, consciousness, “sense of me”
-jealous, empathy, embarrassment, pride, shame, guilt
-emerge after 18 months (when kids find themselves), when a sense of self becomes consolidated
11
Q
Emotional Expressions in Infancy
A
-involved in infants’ first social relationships
-cries and smiles are among babies’ first form of emotional communication
-basic cry, often prompted by hunger, anger cry and pain cry
-ainsworth and bowlby stress that you cannot respond too much to an infant’s crying in their first year of life (may be too overstimulated)
-parents can distinguish various cries of their infant better than those of others
-reflexive smile does not occur in response to external stimuli (birth to 2 months)
-social smile occurs in response to external stimuli
12
Q
One of a baby’s earliest emotions is…
A
fear
-typically first appears at about 6 months and peaks at about 18 months
-stranger anxiety
-separation protest
-during the first year, the infant gradually develops an ability to inhibit, or minimize the intensity and duration of emotional reactions-self soothing, relying on parents
13
Q
Stranger Anxiety
A
fear and wariness of strangers
-most frequent expression of infant fear-appearing at about 6 months
14
Q
Separation Protest
A
crying when the caregiver leaves
-typically displayed by 7-8 months-peaks at about 13-15 months
15
Q
Emotions in Early Childhood
A
-pride, shame, embarrassment, and guilt are self-conscious emotions that appear in the second half of the second year of life
*accompany the development of self-awareness
*during early childhood, expressions of pride and guilt become more common
*especially influenced by parent’s responses to children’s behaviors
-among the most important changes is an increased understanding of emotion
-emotional regulation is fundamental to the development of social competence
16
Q
Increased Understanding of Emotion in Early Childhood
A
between 2-4 years old, children increase the number of terms they use to describe emotion
-also learn about causes and consequences of emotion
between 4-5 years old, children show an increased ability to reflect on emotions
-begin to understand that the same event can elicit different emotions in different people; and show a growing awareness of the need to manage emotions to meet social standards
by 5 years old, most can accurately identify emotions produced by challenging circumstances and ways to cope
17
Q
Emotions in Middle & Late Childhood
A
-learning how to cope w/ stress is an important aspect of children’s lives
*with age, children are able to more accurately appraise a stressful situation and how much control they have over it
-older children generate more coping alternatives to stressful conditions and make greater use of cognitive coping strategies
*by age 10, most children are able to use cognitive strategies to cope with stress
*children may be unable to do so in families that have not been supported and characterized by turmoil
18
Q
Developmental Changes in Emotion during Middle and Late Childhood
A
-improved emotional understanding
-marked improvements in the ability to suppress or conceal negative emotional reactions
-use of self-initiated strategies for redirecting feelings
-increased tendency to take into fuller account the events leading to emotional reactions
-development of a capacity for genuine empathy
19
Q
Emotional Development-Adolescence
A
-adolescents are not constantly in a state of emotional turmoil, or “storm of stress”
-emotional highs and lows do increase during early adolescence
*intensity out of proportion to the events that elicit them
-depression is more common in adolescence than in childhood, and it is increasing among adolescents
*girls especially vulnerable
20
Q
Emotional Development-Adult and Aging
A
developmental changes continue through adult years
-effort to create emotionally satisfying, predictable, and manageable lifestyles
-women and men differ in the ways they experience and respond to stressors
*women are more vulnerable to social stressors and more likely to become depressed
*men are more likely to respond to stress in a fight-or-flight manner
i. become aggressive, withdraw from social contact, or drink alcohol
*women are more likely to engage in a tend and befriend pattern
i. seeking social alliances with others, especially friends
21
Q
Socioemotional Selectivity Theory
A
suggests older adults become more selective about their activities and social relationships in order to maintain social and emotional well-being
22
Q
Motivation for Knowledge
A
related goals decline (socioemotional selectivity theory)
23
Q
Motivation for Emotion
A
related goals increases (socioemotional selectivity theory)
24
Q
Mellowing
A
-older adults-more positive and less negative emotions than younger adults
-react less strongly to negative circumstances
-better at ignoring irrelevant negative emotions
-remember more positive than negative information
25
Temperament
individual differences in behavioral styles, emotions, and characteristic ways of responding
26
Easy Child
generally positive mood, quickly establishes regular routines, adapts easily to new experiences (40%)
27
Difficult child
reacts negatively and cries frequently, irregular daily routines, slow to accept change (10%)
28
Slow-to-Warm-Up Child
low activity level, somewhat negative, low intensity of mood (15%)
29
____% of children do not fit easy, difficult, and slow-to-warm-up.
35
30
Babies are ________ oriented
socially
31
Face-to-Face Play
often begins to characterize caregiver-infant interactions at 2-3 months, including vocalization, touch, and gestures
32
Infants learn about the social world through the ability to _____, ______, ________.
crawl, walk, and run
33
Awareness of _______ and ___________ behavior initially emerges near the end of the 1st year
intentional and goal-directed
34
A key development of attachment and love in infancy is ____________________.
cooperating w/ others
35
Social Referencing
"reading" emotional cues in others to determine how to act
-attachment and love in infancy
36
Attachment
a close emotional bond between 2 people
37
Freud Idea of Attachment
infants attach to a person or object that provides oral satisfaction
38
Harlow Attachment
contact comfort is a crucial element in developing attachment
-rhesus monkey study
-failure to thrive->could die without comfort and attachment
39
Erikson Attachment
the trust vs. mistrust stage emphasizes the role of physical comfort and sensitive care
40
Bowlby Attachment
infants develop an internal working model of attachment-of the caregiver, their relationship, and the self as deserving of care
-influence subsequent responses to others
41
Strange Situation
-observational measure of infant attachment
-created by mary ainsworth, the infant experiences a series of introductions, separations, and reunions w/ the caregiver and an adult stranger
42
Securely Attached
caregiver as a secure base of which to explore
-parenting: sensitive and responsive
43
Insecure Avoidant
show insecurity by avoiding caregiver (30%)
44
Insecure Resistant
cling to caregiver, then resist closeness
-also known as insecure ambivalent
-parenting: non-responsive, unavailable, rejecting
45
Insecure Disorganized
disorganized and disoriented, perhaps fearful
-parenting: neglect or abuse
46
Prefrontal Cortex Role in Attachment
likely important role in maternal attachment behavior
-subcortical regions of the amygdala and hypothalamus
47
Oxytocin and Dopamine
hormone oxytocin and neurotransmitter dopamine are important to the formation of the mother-infant bond
-oxytocin is released in the mother during breastfeeding and by contact and warmth; can also be released in the father
-mother's experience of pleasure and reward influences the brain's dopamine circuits when caring for an infant
48
There is an increasing number of US fathers that stay home full-time w/ their children. (T/F)
True
-many have career focused wives that provide most of the family's income
-most report being as satisfied with their marriage as traditional parents
-may miss daily life in the workplace and feel ostracized when taking children to the playground or when excluded from parent groups
49
Fathers are able to care for infants as _______ and ________ as mothers.
sensitively and responsively
50
Differences between Father and Mother Interactions
-maternal interactions w/ infants tend to center on childcare activities
-paternal interactions are more likely to include play
-mothers engage in play w/ their children 3x as often as fathers do
51
Increase in the number of childcare arrangements is linked to __________________
an increase in behavioral problems and decrease in prosocial behavior
52
Majority of childcare arrangements are of high-quality (T/F)
False, many are low-quality
53
Higher quality childcare is linked to _______________.
higher cognitive academic achievement
54
Many adolescents have a ___________ attachment style, but that attachment stability ________ in adulthood.
fairly stable; increases
55
____________ and ____________ are likely to undermine attachment stability.
family conflict and parental separation or divorce
56
More secure attachments to parents is associated w/ fewer depressive symptoms in adolescents. (T/F)
True
57
Most consistent outcomes of secure attachment for adolescents include ____________ and __________
positive peer relations and emotional regulation
58
3 Stages of Romantic Involvement
-entry into romantic attractions at about 11-13 yrs,
-exploring romantic relationships 14-16 yrs
-consolidating dyadic romantic bonds 17-19 yrs.
-may also be early (15-35%) and late (10-15%) bloomers
-religious and cultural values may also affect standards and expectations
59
Entry into Romantic Attractions
-11-13 yrs
-intensely interested in romance; develop a crush
-dating takes place in group settings
60
Exploring Romantic Relationships
-14-16 yrs
-casual dating and group dating
61
Consolidating Dyadic Romantic Bonds
-17-19 yrs.
-more serious romantic relationships develop
-strong emotional bonds resemble adult relationships
62
Adult Attachment Styles
-secure attachment
-avoidant attachment
-anxious attachment
63
Secure Attachment-Adulthood
a positive view of relationship; easy to get close to others; not overly concerned w/ or stressed out about romantic relationships
64
Avoidant Attachment Style-Adulthood
hesitant about getting involved in romantic relationships; and once in a relationship, distance themselves from partner
64
Anxious Attachment Style-Adulthood
demand closeness; less trusting; more emotional, jealous, possessive
65
More adults see themselves as securely attached and prefer having a securely attached partner (T/F)
True
66
Romantic Love
passionate love or eros-strong components of sexuality and infatuation
-often predominates in the early part of a love relationship
-today, romantic attraction takes place not only in person but also all over internet
-romantic relationships change in emerging adulthood
-culture has a strong influence
67
How do Romantic Relationships Change in Emerging Adulthood?
-long-term relationships in adolescents are both supportive and turbulent
-in emerging adulthood, they provide more support and decreased levels of negative interactions, control, and jealousy
68
Culture's Influence on Romantic Relationships
-in collectivist cultures, intimacy is more diffused in love b/c of strong group emphasis
-in individualistic countries, intimacy is more often intensified
-individual countries vary greatly in romance-related customs
69
Sternberg's Triangular Theory of Love
-passion
-intimacy
-commitment
-varying combinations create 3 qualitatively different types of love: affectionate, fatuous, and consummate
70
Passion
physical and sexual attraction
71
Intimacy
emotional feelings of warmth, closeness, and sharing
72
Commitment-Love
cognitive appraisal of the relationship and an intent to maintain the relationship in the face of problems
73
Affectionate Love
intimacy and commitment are present
-also called compassionate love, involves a desire to have the other person near and a deep, caring affection for the person
74
Fatuous Love
passion and commitment are present
75
Consummate Love
passion, intimacy, and commitment are all present
76
Infatuation Love
only passion present
77
There is a growing belief that as love matures, _____________
passion gives way to affection
78
_________ and __________ are more important in early adulthood, and feelings of emotional security and loyalty become more important in later-life love relationships.
Communication and sexual intimacy
79
Empty Love
only commitment
80
Understanding of the Self and Others-Infancy
-rudimentary form of self-recognition appears as early as 3 months
-mirror technique is one of the strategies for testing infants' visual self-recognition
*with rouge on the nose, increased nose touching means that the infant recognizes the self in the mirror
*signs of self-recognition appear at 15-18 months
*infants develop a conscious awareness of their bodies by their second year
-interactions support development of the self
81
Understanding of Self-Early Childhood
-self-descriptions
-concrete-physical-active
-unrealistically positive- "i'm never scared"
-individual variations in descriptions
82
Understanding of Others-Early Childhood
-theory of mind
-as young as 13 months old may take another's perspective when predicting actions
-4-5 years, begin describing themselves and perceiving others w/ psychological traits
-gradually understand that people do not always give accurate reports of their beliefs
-social interactions and relationships contribute significantly to development
-debate continues over whether they are socially sensitive or basically egocentric
83
Understanding of Self-Middle/Late Childhood
-more complex
-increasingly describe themselves in terms of psychological characteristics and traits
-begin to include social references in their self-descriptions
-make increasing references to social comparison
-begin to distinguish between their real and ideal selves
-self-evaluations become more realistic
84
Perspective Taking-Middle/Late Adulthood
the ability to assume another's perspective and understanding his/her thoughts and feelings
-thought especially important-develop prosocial and antisocial attitudes and behaviors
-executive functions are at work, including cognitive inhibitions and cognitive flexibility
85
Understanding of Self-Adolescence
-understanding
-begin thinking in more abstract and idealistic ways
-increasingly likely to be self-conscious
-become aware of potential contradictions between their differentiated selves
-self-understanding fluctuates across situations and time
-sense of real and ideal selves develops further
-self-understanding becomes more integrative
-possible selves-what adolescents hope to be and what they dread becoming
86
Understanding of Others-Adolescence
-perceiving others' traits, understanding multiple perspectives, and monitoring social world
-understand others are complex and have public and private faces
-cognitive monitoring-important activity in metacognition helpful in social situations
87
Understanding Self and Others-Adulthood
-self awareness
-possible selves-20s many possible selves
*with age-describe fewer possible selves-more realistic portrayals
*middle age-possible selves-areas in which they have already performed
*many individuals continue to revise and adapt to their possible selves
88
Life Review
looking back at one's life experiences, evaluating, interpreting, and reinterpreting
-reminiscence therapy-discussion of past activities and experiences
89
Self-Esteem
global evaluations of the self (self worth or self-image)
90
Self-Concept
domain-specific evaluations of self (ex. academic, athletic)
91
Foundations of self-esteem and self-concept lay in the _________________ during infancy and early childhood
quality of parent-child interactions
92
Low self-esteem has negative consequences in many areas of life (T/F)
true
-implicated in overweight, obesity, anxiety, depression, suicide, and delinquency
-for youths with low self-esteem, low life satisfaction at 30
93
High self-esteem _______ lead directly to good academic performance and correlations w/ adult job performance vary greatly
does not
94
Self-esteem is strongly related to __________
happiness
95
Self-esteem is related to _______________ (females)
perceived physical appearance
96
In most age periods, self-esteem of males is ________ than that of females
higher
97
Most adolescents have a _________ self-image
positive
-gender differences may emerge
-1st grade no difference, but by middle school, girls' self-esteem is slightly lower
98
Inflated Praise
low self-esteem to avoid learning from important challenges
99
Many older adults do not interpret "_______" as negatively-do not become emotionally upset.
losses
-older adults' self-esteem benefits when they know they are accepted by others
100
_______________________ may explain the decline in self-esteem for some older adults
deteriorating physical health and negative societal attitudes
101
Identity vs. Identity Confusion
-erikson
-adolescent stage
102
Psychosocial Moratorium
gap between childhood security and adult autonomy
-adolescents who do not successfully resolve this crisis can suffer from identity confusion
103
Identity Development is a ________ process-more gradual/less crisis than Erikson suggested
lengthy
-individuals with healthy identities are flexible and adaptive
104
At a minimum, identity involves ___________,________, and ________.
-a commitment to a vocational direction
-an ideological stance
-sexual orientation
105
Narrative Approach
asking people to tell and evaluate their life stories
106
Narrative Identities
stories people tell and construct to define who they are
107
Crisis
-marcia
-individual explores alternative
108
Commitment
personal investment
109
Identity Diffusion
no crisis or commitments
110
Identity Foreclosure
commitment, but no crisis
111
Identity Moratorium
in the midst of crisis, but commitments are absent or vaguely defined
112
Identity Achievement
undergone a crisis and made a commitment
113
Trait Theories
state that personality consists of broad dispositions that produce characteristic responses
114
Big Five Factors of Personality
-openness to experience
-conscientiousness
-extraversion
-agreeableness
-neuroticism
115
Optimism
having a positive outlook on the future and minimizing problems
116
Trait Situation Interaction
context or environment is also important to personality
117
Ongoing study of the big five personality traits has found a great deal of _________ across the adult years
stability
118
Emotional stability, extraversion, openness, and agreeableness are __________ in early adulthood, ______ at 40-60 years, and _______ in late adulthood
lower; peak; decrease
119
Conscientiousness shows a continuous ______ from early to late adulthood
increase
120
Most research suggests the greatest change in personality occurs in ________.
early adulthood
121
Personality traits continue to change through the adult years, even in late adulthood. (T/F)
true
-most change occurs during early adulthood
-more stability is show in personality traits after midlife
122
Cumulative Personality Model
with time and age, people become more adept at interacting with their environment in ways that promote increased stability in personality
-personality changes that occur across adulthood move in a positive direction, toward social maturity.
-"more confident, warm, responsible, calm"
123
Gender
characteristics related to the femininity or masculinity based on social and cultural norms
124
Gender Identity
a sense of one's own gender, including knowledge, understanding, and acceptance of being a boy/man, girl/woman, or another gender
125
Gender Roles
a set of expectations that prescribe how girls/women or boys/men should think, act, feel
126
Gender-Typing
acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role
127
Both Estrogens and Androgens are present in males and females, in different concentration. (T/F)
true
128
Estrogens
sex hormones that influence the female physical sex characteristics and help to regulate the menstrual cycle
129
Androgens
sex hormones that promote development of male genitals and secondary sex characteristics->testosterone
130
Male and Female Embryos
initially look alike-diverge as a result of hormonal secretions
-in males, a gene on Y directs formation of testes, which secrete testosterone
131
Social Role Theory
psychological gender differences result from the contrasting social roles of women and men
-most world cultures-women have less power/status and control fewer resources
-social hierarchy and division of labor-important causes of gender differences in power, assertiveness and nurturing
132
Psychoanalytic Theory-Freud's View
-phallic stage (3rd stage)-3-6 yrs.-sexual attraction to opposite sex parent
-at end-5-6 yrs.-children renounce these feelings and identify w/ the same-sex parent
-however, children adopt same-sex roles prior to 5-6 years even if are raised w/ same-sex parent
133
Social Cognitive Theory
gender development occurs through observations and imitations as well as rewards and punishments
134
Parents Social Influences
-action and example
-mothers and fathers often interact differently w/ children and adolescents
-parents interact differently w/ sons and daughters
*in many cultures, mothers socialize their daughters to be more obedient and responsible
*fathers pay more attention, engage more, and promote intellectual development-sons
-mothers are more involved than fathers
-when they have sons, fathers spend more time in parenting
135
Other Adult Social Influences
neighborhood and media
136
Peer Social Influences
-w/age peers increasingly important
-girls acting like boys is generally more accepted than boys acting like girls (peers harder on boys than girls)
-4-12+, children spend most of their play time w/ others of their own sex
*engage in different play behaviors and activities
137
Social Influences-Bias in Schools Against Boys
-compliance, following rules, and being neat and orderly-valued and reinforced
-majority of teachers are female, especially at the elementary level
-boys are more likely to have a learning disability or ADHD and drop out
-boys are more likely to be criticized by teachers
-boys' behaviors is more likely to be stereotyped as problematic
138
Social Influences-Bias in Schools Against Girls
-girls' compliant and quiet-cost of diminished assertiveness
-teachers-more time watching and interacting w/ boys-w/ help and instruction
-girls and boys enter 1st grade with equal self-esteem, but by middle school, girls' is lower
-girls and boys enter 1st grade with equal math and science, but by middle school, gap begins
*girls performing lower, in same-sex schools there are no gaps, social influence of self-efficacy
-pros and cons for same-sex education-jury still out
139
Cognitive Influences on Gender
according to social cognitive theory, observation, imitation, rewards, and punishments are the mechanisms of gender development
140
Gender Schema Theory
gender-typing emerges as children gradually develop gender schemas of what is gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate in their culture
*gender schemas organize the world in terms of male and female
*children are motivated to act in ways that conform to gender schemas
141
Gender Constancy
-kohlberg
-gender labeling
-gender stability
-gender consistency
142
Gender Labeling
correctly labeling the sex (do not understand gender stability over time yet)
-by 2-3 years, toddlers are able to label others; by 2.5-3 yrs able to label the self
143
Gender Stability
realizing that gender is stable over time
-by 5 yrs, realize that boys grow up to be dad and girls grow up to be moms
144
Gender Consistency
understanding gender doesn't change w/ change in appearance
-by 7 yrs, realize that gender is permanent across situations and over time
145
Gender Stereotypes
general impressions and beliefs about girls/women, boys/men
-boys gender stereotypes more rigid than girls
-assigned traits are different and unequal in terms of social status and powers
-male/masculine traits are instrumental-being independent, aggressive, power-oriented
-female/feminine traits are expressive-being warm and sensitive
-masculinity may be the new norm
146
Gender Stereotypes Developmentally
-present 2 yrs-increase by 4 yrs
-middle childhood-adolescence
*appearance stereotypes-more prevalent for girls
*activity and trait stereotypes-more prevalent for boys
*occupation, sports, and school tasks
-by late adolescence, gender attitudes become more flexible
147
Gender Differences
averages-consider overlap-due to biology, sociocultural or both?
148
Controversy in Gender Stereotypes
may be greatly exaggerated
-largest differences appear to be in motor skills, sexuality, and physical aggression
-gender differences in the brain have not been directly linked to psychological differences
-cognitive differences may have been exaggerated and/or may reflect noncognitive factors
gender behavior occurs in contexts-helping behaviors; display of emotions
cultural backgrounds influence gender socialization
-traditional gender roles continue to guide behaviors
-many western cultures are today more flexible about gender behavior and allow more diversity
149
Gender Differences-Socioemotional-Females
aggression
-some amt or more-verbal aggression
-relational aggression-middle/late childhood
emotional
-express emotions more openly
-during adolescence-more self-disclosure
-people-oriented
150
Gender Differences-Socioemotional-Males
aggression
-more physically aggressive-across cultures; appears early; pronounced during provocation
emotional
-experience and express more anger
-value self-assertion
-less self-regulation
-thing-oriented
151
Androgyny
positive masculine and feminine characteristics in the same person
152
Functional Flexibility
one's gender identity being positively linked to adjustment, and competence, involving flexibility adopting to specific situations
153
Transgender
adopting a gender identity that differs from assigned at birth
-some argue trans is a better umbrella term for a variety of gender identities and expressions others prefer gender diverse
154
Cisgender
those whose gender identity and expression corresponds to the gender identity assigned at birth
155
Gender-Intensification Hypothesis
psychological and behavior differences increase in early adolescence
-increased pressure to conform to traditional masculine and feminine gender roles
-adopting a strong masculine role-associated w/ problem behaviors
-extreme gender-typed for either gender-to low school engagement and attachment
156
Rapport Talk
conversation; a way of establishing connections and relationships
-women enjoy this
157
Report Talk
designed to give information
-males enjoy this and display lack of interest in rapport talk
158
Gender Roles among Older Adults
-femininity is increased and masculinity is decreased
-older men become more nurturant; while women do not necessarily become more masculine
-as they age, women face both ageism and sexism
-developing countries-poverty rate for older adult females 2x that of older adult males
-some ethnic minority groups define an older woman's role as unimportant, whereas in others, older women's social status improved with age
159
Moral Development
changes in thoughts, feelings, and behaviors regarding standards of right and wrong
160
Intrapersonal
a person's activities when not engaged in social interaction
161
Interpersonal
social interactions and arbitrates conflict
162
Heteronomous Morality
piaget's stages of moral thought (cognitive)
-4-7 yrs-justice and rules as unchangeable
-judge the goodness-by considering its consequences, not intentions
-imminent justice-if a rule is broken, immediate punishment; violation is automatically connected to its punishment, and if something unfortunate happened, the person must have transgressed (done something wrong
163
The transition from heteronomous morality to autonomous morality during piaget's stages of moral though occurs at what age?
7-10 years
164
Autonomous Morality
-10+ years-rules and laws created by people
-judge the goodness-by considering both intentions and consequences
-punishment occurs only if someone witnesses wrongdoing, and punishment is not inevitable
165
Piaget said that __________ are critical for moral development
peer relations
166
Preconventional Stage of Moral Thought (Kohlberg)
up to 9 yrs, good and bad are interpreted in terms of external rewards and punishments
167
Conventional Stage of Moral Thought
early adolescence, certain standards are set by others (community)
168
Postconventional Stage of Moral Though
early adulthood, alternative moral courses, explore options, personal moral code
169
Other Points of Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Thought
-development fostered by opportunities for perspective taking and experience conflict
-interviews-children are presented stories-characters face moral dilemma-heinz's dilemma
-interaction is a critical part that challenges children to change their moral reasoning
170
Criticisms of Kohlberg's Theory
-too much emphasis on thought and not on behaviors
-kohlberg suggests moral thinking is deliberative, whereas Haidt suggests it is more often an intuitive reaction
-kohlberg suggest emotions have negative effects on moral reasoning, but evidence indicates emotions play an important role
-some critics claim the theory is culturally biased
-kohlberg places too much emphasis on peer relations-not enough on family
-gilligan argued based in male norms that put abstract principles above relationships and concern for others
*males-justice orientation
*females-care perspectives
171
Social Cognitive Theory of Morality
emphasizes a distinction between moral competence and moral performance
172
Moral Competencies
what individuals are capable of, what they know, their skills, their awareness of moral rules and regulations, and their cognitive ability to construct behaviors
173
Moral Performance
actual behavior, determined by motivation and rewards and incentives
174
Bandura
-moral development-combination of social and cognitive factors-self-control
175
____________, ___________, ___________ affect how individuals learn moral behaviors.
reinforcement, punishment, and imitation
-effectiveness of reward and punishment depends on consistency and timing-closely to behavior (swift and intensive)
-effectiveness of modeling-characteristics pf the model and cognitive skills of the observer
176
Behavior is situationally _________-moral behaviors differ based in situation
dependent
177
Resistance to _______ and _______ are keys
temptation and self-control
178
Freud (Feelings and Emotions-Morality)
guilt and desire to avoid feeling guilty-foundations of moral behaviors
179
Superego
the moral branch of personality-2 main components
-ego ideal
-conscience
180
Ego Ideal
rewards the child by conveying a sense of pride and personal value when the child acts in accordance to ideal standards approved by the parents
181
Conscience
punishes the child for behaviors disapproved of by the parents, making the child feel guilty
182
Empathy
an affective response to another's feelings with an emotional response that is similar to the other person's feelings
-emotional state with a cognitive component-the ability of perspective-taking, discerning the inner psychological states of others
183
In early childhood, children respond ______ to others' distress.
appropriately
184
Damon's Developmental Stages In Empathy-Early Infancy
characterized by global empathy, the young infant's empathic response does not distinguish between feelings and needs of self and others
185
DDSE-1-2 yrs of Age
undifferentiated feelings of discomfort at another's distress grow into more genuine feelings of concern, but infants cannot translate realization of others' unhappy feelings into effective action
186
DDSE-Early Childhood
children become aware that every person's perspective is unique and that some else may have a different reaction to a situation, this awareness allows the child to respond more appropriately to another person's distress
187
DDSE-10-12 years
children develop an emergent orientation of empathy for people who live in unfortunate situations. in adolescents, this newfound sensitivity may give a humanitarian flavor to the individual's idealogical and political views
188
Moral Identity
thoughts, behaviors, and feelings can all be involved in an individual's moral personality
-the aspect of personality that is present when individuals have moral notions and commitments central to their love
*behavior violating this moral commitment places the integrity of the self at risk
189
Moral Character
strength of convictions, persisting, overcoming distractions and obstacles
190
Moral Motivation
prioritizing moral values over other personal values
191
Moral Virtues Emphasized
-honesty, truthfulness, and trustworthiness
-care, compassion, thoughtfulness, and considerateness
-dependability, loyalty, and conscientiousness
192
Moral Exemplars
people who have lived exemplary moral lives
-moral personality, identity, character, and virtues reflect moral excellence and commitment
-ex. gandhi and mother theresa
