Exam 4 Flashcards
(107 cards)
1
Q
The conjunction rule states that…
A
the probability of two events co-occurring is equal to or less than the probability of either event occurring alone
2
Q
Making probable conclusions based on evidence involves _______ reasoning
A
Inductive
3
Q
How do we evaluate whether something is true?
A
through formal reasoning
4
Q
Types of formal reasoning
A
deduction and induction
5
Q
Deduction
A
- theory-based inference
- top-down
- either true or false
- validation
6
Q
Induction
A
- data-based inference
- bottom-up
- probabilistic conclusions
- prediction
7
Q
Syllogism
A
a form of deductive reasoning; an instance of a form of reasoning in which a conclusion is drawn from two given or assumed premises, each of which shares a term with the conclusion, and shares a common or middle term not present in the conclusion
8
Q
A syllogism is valid if…
A
the conclusion follows from the premises
9
Q
Belief bias
A
tendency to think syllogism is valid if conclusion is believable
10
Q
Belief-logic conflict
A
if conclusion is believable, people are less sensitive to validity
11
Q
Induction
A
- drawing general conclusion from examples
- not guaranteed to be correct
- probabilistic conclusions
- prediction
12
Q
What strengthens inductive reasoning?
A
frequency and representativeness
13
Q
Frequency in induction
A
conclusion from many examples is more convincing than few
14
Q
Representativeness in induction
A
generalization is more justified if examples and target case are more similar
15
Q
Heuristic
A
- a rule of thumb
- not guaranteed to give right answer
- “fast and frugal”
16
Q
Availability heuristic
A
to estimate the frequency of an event, assess how easily it comes to mind
- can be distorted by familiarity and salience
17
Q
Representativeness heuristic
A
the likelihood that case A is a member of class B depends on how well A resembles members of B
- works often, but may be distorted by neglecting actual probabilities
18
Q
Anchoring and adjustment
A
when making an evaluation, make an initial estimate (anchor) and then adjust this value to fit additional information
19
Q
People are often ____ in the domain of gains and ____ in the domain of losses
A
risk averse; risk seeking
20
Q
People avoid risk for…
A
gains
21
Q
People seek risk when avoiding…
A
losses
22
Q
Decoy effect
A
violation of consistence through third (irrelevant) option
23
Q
People weigh ____ heavier than ____
A
losses; gains
24
Q
Endowment effect
A
people value their goods more if they own them
25
True or false: unrelated mood changes influence what actions we prefer
true
26
Availability heuristic
states that events that more easily come to mind are judged as being more probable than events that are less easily recalled
- error occurs when easily remembered event is less probable
27
Backfire effect
the finding that an individual's support for a particular viewpoint could actually become stronger when faced with corrective facts opposing their viewpoint
- error occurs when person holds to their beliefs in the face of contradictory evidence
28
Base rate
the relative proportion of different classes in the population
- error occurs when base rate information is not taken into account
29
Belief bias
the tendency to think a syllogism is valid if its conclusion is believable
30
Categorical syllogism
the premises and conclusion are statements that begin with All, No, or Some
31
Conditional syllogism
have two premises and a conclusion like categorical syllogisms, but the first premise has the form "if...then"
32
Confirmation bias
occurs when people look for information that conforms to their hypothesis and ignore information that refutes it
- error occurs when there is a narrow focus only on confirming information
33
Conjunction rule
the probability of a conjunction of two events cannot be higher than the probability of the single constituents
- error occurs when higher probability is assigned to the conjunction
34
Decision
the process of choosing between alternatives
35
Deductive reasoning
we determine whether a conclusion logically follows from statements
36
Dual systems approach
37
Expected emotion
emotions that people predict they will feel for a particular outcome
38
Expected utility theory
assumes that people are basically rational and that if people have all of the relevant information, they will make a decision that results in the maximum expected utility, where utility refers to outcomes that achieve a person's goals
39
Falsification principle
to test a rule, it is necessary to look for situations that would falsify the rule
40
Framing effect
decisions are influenced by how the choices are stated, or framed
41
Heuristics
"rules of thumb" that are likely to provide the correct answer but are not foolproof
42
Illusory correlation
occurs when a relationship between two events appear to exist, but in reality, there is no relationship or the relationship is much weaker than it is assumed to be
- error occurs when there is no correlation, or it is weaker than it appears to be
43
Incidental emotions
emotions that are not caused by having to make a decision
44
Inductive reasoning
the process of drawing several conclusions based on specific observations and evidence
45
Judgment
46
Law of large numbers
the larger the number of individuals that are randomly drawn from a population, the more representative the resulting group will be of the entire population
- error occurs when it is assumed that a small number of individuals accurately represents the entire population
47
Mental model
a specific situation represented in a person's mind that can be used to help determine the validity of syllogisms in deductive reasoning
48
Mental model approach
49
Myside bias
people can evaluate evidence in a way that is biased toward their own opinions and attitudes
- error occurs when people let their own opinions and attitudes influence how they evaluate evidence needed to make decisions
50
Neuroeconomics
a new approach to studying decision making that combines research from psychology, neuroscience, and economics to study how brain activation is related to decisions that involve potential gains or losses
51
Permission schema
states that if a person satisfies a specific condition, then he or she gets to carry out an action
52
Premise
a broad statement, part of a syllogism
53
Reasoning
the process of drawing conclusions
54
Representativeness heuristic
states that the likelihood that an instance is a member of a larger category depends on how well that instance resembles properties we typically associate with that category
- error occurs when presence of similar properties doesn't predict membership in class B
55
Risk aversion
the tendency to avoid taking risks
56
Risk aversion strategy
57
Status quo bias
the tendency to do nothing when faced with making a decision
58
Stereotype
an oversimplified generalization about a group or class of people that often focuses on the negative
59
Syllogism
consists of two broad statements, or premises, followed by a third statement called the conclusion; the basic form of deductive reasoning
60
Ultimatum game
61
Utility
refers to outcomes that achieve a person's goals
62
Validity
63
Wason four-card problem
64
Language
a system of communication using sounds or symbols that enables us to express our feelings, thoughts, ideas, and experiences
65
Hierarchical nature of language
language consists of a series of small components that can be combined to form larger units
66
Rule-based nature of language
means that components of language can be arranged in certain ways but not in others
67
psycholinguistics
the field concerned with the psychological study of language; goal is to discover the psychological processes by which humans acquire and process language
68
What are the four major concerns of psycholinguistics?
Comprehension, representation, speech production, acquisition
69
Lexicon
all of the words we know; our "mental dictionary"
70
Semantics
the meaning of language
71
Lexical semantics
meaning of words
72
Word frequency
the frequency with which a word appears in a language
73
Word frequency effect
refers to the fact that we respond more rapidly to high-frequency words than to low-frequency words; the reason this is important is because a word's frequency influences how we process the word
74
Lexical decision task
one way to illustrate processing differences between high and low frequency words in which the task is to decide as quickly as possible whether strings of letters are words or nonwords
75
Speech segmentation
the perception of individual words even though there are often no pauses between words
76
Lexical ambiguity
the idea that words can often have more than one meaning
77
Lexical priming
priming that involves the meaning of words; occurs when a word is followed by another word with a similar meaning
78
Meaning dominance
the relative frequency of the meanings of ambiguous words
79
Biased dominance
80
Balanced dominance
81
Syntax
the structure of a sentence
82
Parsing
considering how meaning is created by the grouping of words into phrases; making sense of sentences
83
Garden path sentences
sentences which begin appearing to mean one thing but then end up meaning something else
84
Temporary ambiguity
illustrated by garden path sentences; first one organization is adopted and then, when the error is realized, the person shifts to the correct organization
85
Garden path model of parsing
as people read a sentence, their grouping of words into phrases is governed by a number of processing mechanisms called heuristics
86
Heuristic
a rule that can be applied rapidly to make a decision
87
Late closure
when a person encounters a new word, the person's parsing mechanism assumes that this word is part of the current phrase, so each new word is added to the current phrase for as long as possible
88
Constraint-based approach to parsing
the idea that information in addition to syntax participates in processing as a person reads or hears a sentence
89
Visual world paradigm
involves determining how information in a scene can influence how a sentence is processed
90
Subject-relative construction
91
Object-relative construction
92
Inferences
determining what the text means by using our knowledge to go beyond the information provided by the text; an important part of the process of creating a coherent story
93
Narrative
texts in which there is a story that progresses from one event to another
94
Coherence
an important property of any narrative; the representation of the text in a person's mind that creates clear relations between parts of the text and between parts of the text and the main topic of the story
95
Anaphoric inference
96
Instrument inference
97
Causal inference
you infer that events described in one clause or sentence were caused by events that occurred in a previous sentence
98
Situation model
99
Given-new contract
100
Common ground
101
Referential communication task
102
Entrainment
103
Syntactic coordination
104
Syntactic priming
105
Theory of mind
106
Prosody
107
