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Exam 4 Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the levels of protein structures?

A

Primary: linear; polypeptide chain
Secondary: alpha helix and beta pleated sheet
Tertiary: Major fold
Quadinary: 2 poly-peptide chains interacting

R group and amino acids are key to structure

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2
Q

What is the role of each step in the DNA extraction process?

A
  1. peas, water, salt, in a blender: to break down plant cell walls in peas. cold water slows enzymes that break DNA apart
  2. Filter to test tude: to isolate and filter DNA
  3. Add liquid detergent: it breaks down the nuclear membrane and cell membrane that protects the DNA and makes DNA more accessible
  4. Add meat tenderizer: enzymes cut away at proteins protecting DNA (histones)
  5. Add alcohol: DNA precipitates when in alcohol, so it won’t dissolve; clumped and easier to see
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3
Q

What are point mutations and their consequences?

A

3 types: substitutions, insertion, deletion
Consequences: it may or may not have a difference, but it could effect the ability of an individual to function; alters the primary structure, which determines the new function

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4
Q

What contributions did researchers make to the development of DNA as hereditary material? **

A
  • Griffith did experiments with mice and found that non-harmful bacteria cells can be transferred into harmful ones
  • Avery interpreted his work to mean that DNA was the tranforming factor and the carrier of genetic information from old chromosomes to new ones
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5
Q

What is DNA Fingerprinting?

A
  • DNA cut into segments
  • restriction enzyme cuts it up at diff. lengths
  • produces banding patterns, which helps identify people
  • DNA is put into gel electrophoresis, which separates bands
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6
Q

What are the principles of electrophoresis?

A
  • the gel gives the DNA the means to move across the electric field because DNA is negatively charged
  • the bands will go farther if it is smaller (closer to positive)
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7
Q

What is the Central Dogma of Biology?

A

DNA (information) ->
RNA (building blocks) ->
Proteins

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8
Q

Who asserted that genes dictate phenotypes through enzymes?

A

Archibald Garrod

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9
Q

What are the two important roles of proteins in the cells?

A

structural components of cells and enzymes

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10
Q

What is the primary structure of a protein?

A

Polypeptide chain

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11
Q

What is the structure of DNA?

A

Double helix strands that are anti-parallel; bases in the center with a sugar-phosphate backbone; connected with h-bonding

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12
Q

What is base-pairing in DNA?

A

adenine and thymine
guanine and cystosine

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13
Q

How is DNA arranged in a cell?

A

DNA is wrapped around histones, which make up nucleosomes, which when they are condensed, they make up chromosomes

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14
Q

Who elucidated the structure of DNA in 1953?

A

James Watson and Francis Crick

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15
Q

How does DNA store information needed to run the cell?

A

DNA stores information in the base pairing of its structure. Every 3 bases is a codon that determines the amino acid which determines the protein.. Based on the order, type, and number, it codes for different proteins
- words, sentences analogy

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16
Q

What does it mean that the DNA code is degenerate and unambiguous?

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A
  • DNA is degenerate because two different codons can code for the same amino acid
  • DNA is unambiguous because each codon codes for a certain amino acid
17
Q

What is the outcome and process of transcription?

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A
  • DNA is read by RNA polymerase to make a complementary strand of RNA
  • Outcome is a complementary RNA strand with U instead of T
18
Q

What is the outcome and process of translation?

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A
  1. tRNA carries anticodon to the A site of the ribosome.
  2. Anticodon is complementary to the codon of mRNA.
  3. Ribosome moves three nucleotides to the right as the initial amino acid is transferred to the second amino acid at the P site.
  4. tRNA leaves the ribosome at the E site and the next tRNA comes in; a covalent bond is formed between amino acids to form the polypeptide chain.
19
Q

What are the types of RNA and their roles?

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A

mRNA- messenger: carries genetic info to ribosome
tRNA- transfer: brings correct amino acid to the ribosome based on codon
rRNA- ribosomal: forms ribosomes needed for protein synthesis

20
Q

What are several methods by which a mutation can occur?

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A
  1. insertion
  2. deletion
  3. substitution
21
Q

What is a frameshift mutation and what causes it?

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A

A base is deleted or inserted, making the entire DNA shift, so it changes which amino acids are coded for.

22
Q

What are some possible triggers to gene mutations?

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A
  • exposure to harmful radiation and certain chemicals in the environment
23
Q

What are 3 possible outcomes of a gene mutation?

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A
  • beneficial, neutral, or harmful effects on the ability to function in the environment
24
Q

What is the role of mutations and natural selection in Neo-Darwinism?

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A
  • Neo-Darwinian claims that all new biological information arises through random mutations and natural selection
  • It claims that natural selection
    has the ability to eliminate the destructive mutations and foster the helpful ones.
  • Evolutionary change and complexity happens by more random mutations
25
Describe Oparin’s hypothesis with regard to Biomolecular Evolution
He believed that simple inorganic chemicals evolve to organic monomers and then into polymers (macromolecules), then into a cell
26
Describe the experiment performed by Urey and Miller and the results. Critique the experiment in several areas.
Experiment: they made an apparatus that they thought simulated the earth's atmosphere at the origin. With boiling water, ammonia, methane, and hydrogen, they added sparks that simulated the natural world. They had a condenser where water droplets could fall into water containing organic compounds. They found complex molecules here. Critiques: closed system, not open. cross reactions could happen (hydrolysis- water breaks), can't have oxygen
27
What is the problem of enantiomers and stereoisomers with regard to the formation of biomolecules such as amino acids and their use in biological systems?
- they can interfere with the proteins (only L) and sugars (only G) that interact with our body - thalidomide was given to mothers who were pregnant; D helped with morning sickness, but L gave fetal development defects (extra/missing limbs) - carvone: (L) - food tastes like spearmint; (D) tastes like caraway seed
28
Describe the challenges presented by forming the first cells
- such a complex system - DNA is irreducibly complex and is located inside the nucleus. - each cell contains more components inside. - transcription and translation are needed to make proteins; very specific codons are needed to make certain amino acids -> ID
29
Describe DNA as an information molecule
- helps determine amino acids which determine proteins
30
Describe Nano machines like ATP synthase and the concept of Irreducible complexity to the formation of the first cells and their evolution into more complex living systems. Be able to describe the function and basic structure of these nano machines.
- In ATP synthase deals with gradients of protons; cam twists and gives you energy to add proton to ADP to make ATP - Irreducible complexity: Each component performs a SPECIFIC job where they INTERACT with one another in a way that each part is INDISPENSABLE - life would not possible w/o these machine, but these machines need life in order to function - DNA is IC, so it could not evolve over time
31
Ken Miller introduces the concept of co-opting to argue against irreducible complexity. Describe this argument using the example presented in class.
- co-opting: build complex systems by piecing together simpler systems - makes things more complex - shows that protein parts from the flagellum motor can perform other functions. NS preserved those functions and the structures were co-opted along with other structures to form the flagellum motor
32
What is a counter argument to Miller’s co-opting argument?
Just because we cannot imagine the pathways to build these molecular machines does not mean the pathways do not exist
33
It is often said that scientists may disagree on how evolution progressed or its mechanics but all agree that evolution did happen & it is a fact. Why do they believe it happened? Reference Richard Lewontin quote. What evidence do they agree upon?
"Materialism is absolute, for we cannot allow a Divine Foot in the door" - Lawontin - materialism: all that we see is all that there is - agreed on this because you cannot evoke the super natural
34
What is adaptive radiation? Use Darwin’s finches and the Galapagos Islands as a context to explain the concept.
- in adaptive radiation, a species changes to adapt to occupy different ecological niches (role in the environment) - The finches changed over time to match their different food type in their environment (small seeds vs big)
35
Describe Darwin’s line of reasoning for natural selection. Provide a detailed example of evidence presented in class or in the textbook to illustrate your response. What is the outcome of natural selection in a population?
- natural populations inherently reproduce, but they cannot indefinitely grow in size because of finite resources and living - sooner or later, individuals wind up competing for dwindling resources - individuals share gene pools on heritable traits and yet are not identical - with variation, some are better than others at surviving and reproducing Outcome: individuals with best characteristics to survive and reproduce will pass alleles with greater frequency to future generations
36
Describe the processes that bring about the formation of two species from one population (speciation). Include the terms gene pool & gene flow & Geographic Isolation & Reproductive Isolation
1. Isolation of gene pools (total genes in pop) of populations to prevent gene flow (movement of alleles within gene pool); Geographic isolation 2. Evolutionary changes in gene pools of populations 3. Evolution of reproductive isolation between populations; new species cannot mix, which is reproductive isolation.
37
List two general kinds of reproductive barriers and provide examples for each.
1. Prezygotic: prevents fertilization from occurring - example: geographic isolation- chipmunks could not breed if on different islands 2. Pstzygotic: fertilization occurs, but hybrid fails to develop or reproduce - example: mule- can't reproduce
38
components of amino acid
amine, carboxyl group, R group

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