Exam 4 Flashcards
(190 cards)
1
Q
What is Behavior?
A
the range of actions and mannerisms made by organisms, systems, or artificial entities in conjunction with their environment. It is the response of the system or organism to various stimuli or inputs, whether internal or external, conscious or subconscious, overt or covert, and voluntary or involuntary.
2
Q
What is Ethology?
A
the scientific and objective study of animal behavior, and is a sub-topic of zoology.
3
Q
What is the Behavioral Process?
A
!!!
4
Q
Behaviors can be
A
innate or learned
5
Q
Konrad Lorenz is associated with what concept?
A
fixed action patterns
6
Q
fixed action patterns are
A
instinctive responses that would occur reliably in the presence of identifiable stimuli. produced by a neural network known as the innate releasing mechanism in response to an external sensory stimulus known as a sign stimulus or releaser.
7
Q
Karl von Frisch is associated with what?
A
so-called “dance language” related to bee communication.
8
Q
Nikolaas Tinbergen is associated with what?
A
He is well known for originating the four questions he believed should be asked of any animal behaviour,[
9
Q
What were Tinbergen’s 4 questions?
A
- ) Causation: what are the stimuli that elicit the response, and how has it been modified by recent learning?
- ) Development: how does the behaviour change with age, and what early experiences are necessary for the behaviour to be shown?
- ) Evolution: how does the behaviour change with age, and what early experiences are necessary for the behaviour to be shown?
- ) Function: how does the behaviour impact on the animal’s chances of survival and reproduction?
10
Q
what is Nature versus nurture?
A
The nature versus nurture debate concerns the relative importance of an individual’s innate qualities versus personal experiencesindividual differences in physical and behavioral traits.
11
Q
Violence and TV?
A
Television in the home is the greatest source of visual violence for children.
12
Q
Lord of the Flies
A
The book portrays their descent into savagery; left to themselves in a paradisiacal country, far from modern civilisation, the well-educated children regress to a primitive state.
13
Q
Types of Behavior
A
- ) taxis = orientation
- ) Reflex = automatic response
- ) Instinct = fixed action pattern
- ) Learning = modification of behavior by experience
- ) Reasoning = response to novel situation
14
Q
Types of Learning
A
- ) Habituation a form of adaptive behavior (or neuroplasticity) that is classified as nonassociative learning.
- ) Conditioning usually done by pairing the two stimuli, as in Pavlov’s classic experiments.
- ) Trial & Error - usually self learned.
- ) Imprinting - hard-wiring
15
Q
Reasoning =
A
Insight the understanding of a specific cause and effect in a specific context.
16
Q
Aggressive Behavior is
A
behavior, or a disposition, that is forceful, hostile or attacking.
17
Q
Aggression can be related to
A
space, food, territory, mates, anything in short supply.
18
Q
Two categories of aggression
A
- ) affective (emotional) and hostile or retaliatory aggression.
- ) other includes instrumental, goal-oriented or predatory aggression.
19
Q
How to show aggression:
A
Verbal warning of various sorts Display of weapons Staring at opponent Demonstrate weapons Threat signs Yelling Increase in size Posturing Displacement behavior
20
Q
Displaying aggression is
A
Highly stereotyped
Highly ritualized
Highly standardized among Vertebrates
21
Q
Who to avoid aggression
A
Can lose Can lose and get hurt Win, get resource -- heavy energy toll Win, get resource, get hurt Win, lose resource Win, lose resource, get hurt No win-win situation
22
Q
Aggression increases
A
- As mating season approaches
- With unfamiliarity with opponent
- Similarity in age
23
Q
Dominance is
A
- Based on size & strength
Submissive behavior
Advantages & costs of alpha position
Alpha male vs alpha female
24
Q
Dominance in humans
A
-Size & strength are less important
$$, position, relatives, brains
Formation of alliances, factions, coalitions
Position changes with situation
25
Submissive Behavior
```
Used to re-enforce dominance
_________________________
Greetings – sniffing, vocalization
Clothing & adornments
Salute, kneel, bow
__________________________
```
26
Territory
any sociographical area that an animal of a particular species consistently defends against conspecifics
27
Sociobiology is a scientific study based on:
The assumption that social behavior has resulted from evolution.
28
Some behaviors both social and individual...
Are at least partly inherited and can be affected by natural selection.
29
Assumptions of sociobiology:
- natural selection can occur at any level from genes to groups.
- genes control certain behaviors.
30
Examples of group selection:
- male protects herd (young and female).
- flock of birds warning ca
- wolves hunting
31
Behavior not always:
- against predators
| - correct
32
The hallmark of sociobiology
Altruism
33
Altruism is
The principle or practice of concern for the welfare of others.
34
Why is this not a good thing to do?
If one practices altruism then they will be helping the weakest survive and thus go against natural selection where the fittest in society survive and the weaker genes die off.
35
Altruism requires
Personal sacrifices and leads to a decrease in personal freedoms.
36
Spite
- loss of fitness for victim and yourself
| - suicide bomber
37
Selfish
- loss of fitness for victim
- gain of fitness for yourself
- cheat on a test
- ranges from self-assertiveness to stealing.
- societal laws regulate what is acceptable and what are punishments.
38
Self-Indulgence
- no impact for victim
- gain in fitness for you
- pornography
- acceptable as a child less acceptable as an adult.
39
Cooperation
- gain in fitness for victim and yourself
- basis of our socioeconomic system.
- one good turn deserves another.
40
Courteous
- gain in fitness for victim
- no impact for yourself
- kindness, generosity, philanthropy
41
Altruism
- gain in fitness for victim
- loss of fitness
- glue that holds communities together
42
Who created Sociobiology?
E.O Wilson
43
Social Insects:
ants, bees, termites, wasps.
44
E.O. Wilson's ants
Ants have no choice but to care for the colony as a whole. Worker ants cannot reproduce so they must protect those who can.
Meanwhile humans can reproduce without a Queen so they aren't as committed to taking care of the group.
45
Social Insects: Ants
Queen = fertile
King = fertile
Workers = all are sterile
Often several castes.
46
Male promiscuity
```
death in combat & food gathering
don’t know if father, jealous;
More to lose in contest over females.
Female hides estrous to keep male
Male investment tiny (sperm) compared to female; but females often scarce.
```
47
Females & Hunter-gatherer
Male hunted – 1-10% success
Female gathered 90+% food
Anti-feminist but females allowed males to hunt.
No longer need bow & arrow, gun,
Now females hunt in meat section, and males gather in produce section.
Ultimate…..Boston Market!!
48
sex
Females investment great, so secrecy of estrous & father to insure monogamy
Mother protects young. Reason obvious, yet child is selfish…. Wants to survive. Mom wants to stop nursing; baby not. So Mom uses force; baby uses psych. warfare.
Parents have limited resources, so demand sharing as # of offspring rises.
Exceptions to sharing concept.
49
Ecology is...
The study of organisms and the interaction between these organisms and their environment.
50
Environment
external factors affecting an organism.
51
Abiotic
weather, energy, chemical
52
Biotic
living portion
53
Biota =
flora + fauna (and now microbes)
54
Community
all interacting populations
55
Ecosystem
all organisms & non-living environment in an area.
56
Succession
Orderly change in community from simple to complex.
57
Two types of succession
1. ) Primary Succession
| 2. ) Secondary Succession
58
Primary Succession
it is the gradual growth of an ecosystem over a longer period. (Lacking Soil)
59
Secondary Succession
secondary succession is a process started by an event[1] (e.g. forest fire, harvesting, hurricane) that reduces an already established ecosystem (e.g. a forest or a wheat field) to a smaller population of species. (With Soil)
60
Seral Stages
In a naturally occurring ecosystem, vegetation occurs in a patchwork of different community types and age classes
61
Climax Community
a biological community of plants and animals which, through the process of ecological succession — the development of vegetation in an area over time — has reached a steady state.
62
Ecological Energetics
the quantitative study of the flow of energy through ecological systems.
63
Laws of Thermodynamics
1st Law - Energy can be converted from one form to another but can not be created or destroyed.
2nd Law – The interconversion of energy is never 100%.
64
Eat – defecate = assimiliate – maintenance = growth + storage + reproduction.
Ingest (1829 cal) – Defecation (454 cal) = Assimilation (1375 cal) – Respiration (802 cal) = Growth (573 cal)
65
Trophic Level Concept
The trophic level of an organism is the position it occupies in a food chain.
66
Trophic Levels are:
```
Top Carnivore – 5o Consumer – Killer Whale
3o Carnivore – 4o Consumer - seal
2o Carnivore – 3o Consumer – Sardines
1o Carnivore – 2o Consumer - Anchovies
Herbivore – 1o Consumer - zooplankton
Primary Producer -phytoplankton
Sun (ultimate source of energy[*])
[*] Deep sea vents; petroleum, coal
```
67
Energy Flow
the flow of energy through a food chain.
68
About Energy Flow
```
One eyed, one horned, flying purple people eater (1 unit of energy)
Biology 7 student (10 units of energy)
Cow (100 units of energy)
Alfalfa sprouts (1000 units of energy)
Sun (10,000 units of energy)
Ecological efficiency = 10%
```
69
Marine Intertidal Food Web
“Web” as in a spider’s web.
Note “blur” in trophic levels.
“Keystone” species.
70
Broad niche
```
a type of organism that can generally live anywhere or eat most things.
Generalist, jack-of-all-trades
No special tools
Gas station mechanic
Family practice
Barnes & Noble
```
71
Narrow Niche
```
Specialist
Special equipment
Transmission man.
Brain surgeon
Adult book store!
```
72
Competitive Exclusion Principle
a proposition which states that two species competing for the same resources cannot coexist if other ecological factors are constant.
73
Merriam’s Life Zones
was developed by C. Hart Merriam in 1889 as a means of describing areas with similar plant and animal communities. Merriam observed that the changes in these communities with an increase in latitude at a constant elevation are similar to the changes seen with an increase in elevation at a constant latitude.
74
life zones that Merriam identified
Lower Sonoran (low, hot desert): Creosotebush, Joshua Tree
Upper Sonoran (desert steppe or chaparral): Sagebrush, Scrub Oak, Colorado Pinyon, Utah Juniper
Transition (open woodlands): Ponderosa Pine
Canadian (fir forest): Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir, Quaking Aspen
Hudsonian (spruce forest): Engelmann Spruce, Rocky Mountains Bristlecone Pine
Arctic-Alpine (alpine meadows or tundra): Lichen, Grass
75
Lower Sonoran
low, hot desert
Deserts or
Dependent upon rains
Grasslands
76
Upper Sonoran
desert steppe or chaparral
Chaparral
Scrub vegetation
Santa Monica Mtns
77
Transition
open woodlands
Mixture of conifers & broadleaf trees
Yosemite N.P.
78
Canadian
```
fir forest
Coniferous forest
Source of our drinking water
Skiing
I.e. recreation
```
79
Hudsonian
spruce forest
Small trees – 10 m
Bogs, marshes
Source of lumber (largest terrestrial biome)
80
Arctic-Alpine
```
alpine meadows or tundra
Above Treeline
Above Timberline
No trees.
Tundra
Permafrost
```
81
Croplands
Predominantly grasslands converted to croplands.
Oakwoodlands often converted to grazing land.
Grasslands converted to orchard land = manicured forests.
Deserts to croplands if irrigated.
82
Chaparral
```
Life Zone = Upper Sonoran
Biome = Scrub
Climatic Characteristics
Mild, wet winters
Hot summers
80% Rainfall from Dec to Mar
(Sp. Chaparros = evergreen oak)
```
83
Hardwoods
Deciduous
Furniture, floors
Ebony, mahogany, rosewoods, oaks
84
Softwoods
Evergreen
Building material = plywood, 2x4s
Firs, redwoods, Doulas, fir.
85
Vegetation
Broad evergreen sclerophyll forest <2.5 m
Many allelopathic
Fire adapted, natural component of habitat (probably many habitats)
North slope/South Slope
86
South-facing slope
Hot, dry, faces sun most of the year
87
North-facing Slope
Cooler & moister
88
Average Depth of Ocean
= 14,000 ft = 4200 m
89
ocean current
a continuous, directed movement of ocean water generated by the forces acting upon this mean flow.
90
Surface ocean currents are generally
wind-driven and develop their typical clockwise spirals in the northern hemisphere and counter-clockwise rotation in the southern hemisphere because of the imposed wind stresses.
91
Upwelling Areas
wind-driven motion of dense, cooler, and usually nutrient-rich water towards the ocean surface, replacing the warmer, usually nutrient-depleted surface water.
92
Estuaries
a partly enclosed coastal body of water with one or more rivers or streams flowing into it, and with a free connection to the open sea.
Perpendicular to ocean
Sunken river valleys
Tends to hyposaline (low amounts of salt)
93
Lagoons
a shallow body of water separated from a larger body of water by barrier islands or reefs.
Parallel to ocean
Accumm. Of sand.
Tends to hypersaline (high amounts of salt)
94
Generalize Plant Life Cycle
Two generations – sporophyte & gametophyte
95
Sporophyte generation is
diploid (2n)
96
Sporophyte generation produces
haploid (n) spores
97
Gametophyte generation is
haploid (n)
98
Gametophyte generation produces
gametes, which fuse to form a zygote (2n).
99
Simplest plants =
algae
100
Algae
Lack roots, lack leaves, lack vascular tissue, lack flowers.
Aquatic – possess motile male gametes
a very large and diverse group of simple, typically autotrophic organisms, ranging from unicellular to multicellular forms, such as the giant kelps that grow to 65 meters in length. Most are photosynthetic like plants, and "simple" because they lack the many distinct cell and organ types found in land plants. The largest and most complex marine forms are called seaweeds.
101
Rhodophyta
red algae
| Most red algae are small(at least on our coast)
102
Phaeophyta
```
brown algae
Brownish yellow pigment
Among largest plants in world
Kelp to 100 m, growing 1-2 m PER DAY.
Common example – alginate = thickening agents in Jello, ice cream, make up, toothpaste, dog foods.
```
103
Chlorophyta
green algae
Contains chlorphyll a & b, + carotenoids.
Classic representatives = Chlamydamonas
Common in freshwater – ponds, lakes, creeks
104
Coming onto land
Need roots to anchor & get nutrients/water
Vascular tissue = vessels = ~ blood vessels
Lignin to serve as skeletal system
Cuticle - ~ waxy skin
Reproduction
105
Bryophyte - 1st land plants
Haploid gametophyte plants
Stalks are sporophyte plants
106
Bryophyta – mosses
Half-way onto land
Has rhizoids instead of roots.
No vascular tissue/lignin, so short < 2 cm
Has motile sperm…. Needs water to swim to female
So…. Found where? Moist areas.
107
Reproduction with water
Male gametophyte plant
Female gametophyte plant
Close enough together so drop of water connects two for sperm to swim across.
108
Sphenophyta
Called Horsetails.
Treelike in Carboniferous (vascular tissue)
Formed modern coal beds.
Small obscure group, but we have lots growing in our atrium!! So recognize it.
109
Vascular plants
Tracheophytes.
a large group of plants that are very roughly defined. Vascular plants are those plants that have lignified tissues for conducting water, minerals, and photosynthetic products through the plant.
110
Vascular tissue function
(1) structural support & (2) conduction of water & nutrients
111
Pteridophyta
```
Ferns.
Seedless, vascular plants
Were once tree size, during Carboniferous period.
Now smallers.
Roots, “leaves” called fronds.
Underside of fronds bear “brown spots”
= sporangia -> produces spores.
So fern = sporophyte plant
```
112
Gametophyte plant
Male gametophyte must swim to female gametophyte to fertilize.Still need water.
113
Ferns do best where?
often succeeding in places where various environmental factors limit the success of flowering plants.
114
Vascular seed plants
```
Gymnosperms
Conifers
Pines, firs, redwoods, yews,
Angiosperms
Flowering plants
Roses, orchids, grasses
```
115
gymno-
From Ancient Greek γυμνός (“naked”).
116
Angiosperm: Monocot
One Cotyledon ( is a significant part of the embryo within the seed of a plant. Upon germination, the cotyledon may become the embryonic first leaves of a seedling.)
Parallel Veins on leaf
Flower parts = 3’s
Fibrous roots
Vascular bundles scattered.
Grasses, lily, orchids, palms, corn, grains
117
Angiosperm: Dicots
```
Two Cotyledons
Net Veins on leaf
Flower parts = 4-5’s
Tap roots
Vascular bundles in rings around stem
Trees, shrubs, herbs,
```
118
Roots we eat
Turnip
| Carrots, daikon, radish, hecuma?
119
Xylem
A vascular tissue in land plants primarily responsible for the distribution of water and minerals taken up by the roots; also the primary component of wood.
120
phloem
A vascular tissue in land plants primarily responsible for the distribution of sugars and nutrients manufactured in the shoot.
121
vascular cambium
A layer of cells between the xylem and the phloem that is responsible for the secondary growth of roots and stems.
122
Xylem conducts
water and dissolved minerals from the roots to all the other parts
123
phloem conducts
food from the leaves and other photosynthetic tissues to other plant parts.
124
old xylem cells become
heartwood.
125
old phloem cells become
bark.
126
Leaves that you eat
Lettuce, Spinach, grape leaves, cabbage.
127
Stems that you eat
celery and asparagus.
128
Petioles that you eat?
Celery, Fennel.
129
Lateral buds
grow from the leaf axils on the side of a stem. (Onion)
130
Peapods are botanically
a fruit,[2] since they contain seeds developed from the ovary of a (pea) flower.
131
examples of “vegetables” that are really fruits?
squash, peas, eggplants, green beans, cucumber, tomato.
132
examples of seedless fruits (genetic or hormonal)
Seedless grapes, watermelon, bananas, oranges, lemons, limes.
133
Peanut
whole thing is considered a seed. Peanut split in half = two cotyledons = dicotyledon = nutrition for embryo until leaves form.
134
Superior Ovary
an ovary attached to the receptacle above the attachment of other floral parts. A superior ovary is found in types of fleshy fruits such as true berries, drupes, etc. A flower with this arrangement is described as hypogynous.
135
Superior ovary =
tomato. Now remember, as tomato started growing, it got heavy and turned over!
Each “section” on this tomato = carpel.
Note earlier pea pod = single carpel
136
Inferior Ovary
lies below the attachment of other floral parts. Flowers with inferior ovaries are termed epigynous. (Apples)
137
Superior
Plums, cherries,
| Tomatoes, peppers, beans, peas,
138
Inferior
Apples, pears,
Squashes, zucchinis,
cucumbers
139
Monocots
Flower parts in 3’s
Leaves narrow
Parallel veins
Vascular bundles scattered
Fibrous root system
Single cotyledon
E.g. grasses, iris, orchid
140
Dicots
```
Flower parts in 4’s & 5’s
Leaves oval/palmate
Netlike veins
Vascular bundles arranged in concentric circles
Taproot system
Two cotyledons
Roses, beans,
```
141
Nuts
Nuts often have hard coat = Inner ovary wall.
Inside = seed
Pecan, Almonds,
142
Germinating Seeds
Germination is the growth of an embryonic plant contained within a seed; it results in the formation of the seedling.
143
Endocrine
any of the ductless glands of the endocrine system that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream; Ex-Thyroid gland,Pituitary, Parathyroid, Pancreas, Adrenals, Ovaries, Testes, Thymus, Pineal Body.
144
Exocrine
denoting a gland that secretes outwardly through ducts to be taken to a cavity or surface. EX-Salivary glands, Sweat glands, Gastric glands, Seabaceous gland.
145
Endocrine is to
secrete internally
146
Gland
an organ in an animal's body that synthesizes a substance for release of substances such as hormones or breast milk, often into the bloodstream or into cavities inside the body or its outer surface (exocrine gland).
147
Hormone
chemical substance secreted by endocrine gland carried by blood stream to various parts of body where they exert changes in cellular activity
148
Target (cells)
target cells can refer to the cells where hormones have their effect. Target cells are capable of responding to hormones because they bear receptors to which the hormone can bind. Most hormones circulate in blood, coming into contact with essentially all cells. However, a given hormone usually affects only a limited number of cells, which are called target cells.
149
Action Potential
a short-lasting event in which the electrical membrane potential of a cell rapidly rises and falls, following a consistent trajectory.
150
Testosterone
Testosterone is a steroid hormone from the androgen group. Secreted by testes and ovaries.
151
Estrogen
group of compounds named for their importance in the estrous cycle of humans and other animals. Secreted by Ovaries.
152
Insulin
The beta cells of the Isles of Langerhaans in the pancreas secrete insulin.
153
Thyroxin
a hormone of the thyroid gland that contains iodine and is a derivative of the amino acid tyrosine.
154
Sweat
small tubular structures of the skin that produce sweat.
155
Mammary
an organ in female mammals that produces milk to feed young offspring.
156
Tear
The lacrimal glands are paired almond-shaped glands, one for each eye, that secrete the aqueous layer of the tear film.
157
Sebaceous
microscopic glands in the skin that secrete an oily/waxy matter, called sebum, to lubricate and waterproof the skin and hair of mammals.[1] In humans, they are found in greatest abundance on the face and scalp, though they are distributed throughout all skin sites except the palms and soles.
158
Scent
are exocrine glands found in most mammals. They produce semi-viscous secretions.
159
Thyroid Gland regulates
body temperature. adjustments to cold or warm environs.
160
Anterior Pituitary does not
monitor Thyroxin levels.
161
Hypothalamus gland monitors
body Temp.
162
Sends message to Anterior Pituitary if
too hot/cold. Sends out Releasing/Inhibiting Hormones.
163
Non-Tropic Hormones
are hormones that directly stimulate target cells to induce effects.
Adjusts & controls cellular activities to maintain
Homeostasis
Rhythms
Emergencies
164
Endemic Goiter
Thyroid gland not producing thyroxine
Response is to enlarge thyroid gland caused by Iodine deficiency. Iodine, which is essential for the production of hormones.
165
Grave’s Disease
Hyperactive thyroid gland
Too much thyroxine
Nervous, excitable, enormous appetite, yet weight loss, bulging eyes
Skin hot, flushed, and sweaty
Correction – restrict Iodine intake, surgery
166
TSH
Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone
167
TSH causes the thyroid gland to make two hormones:
triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4).
168
ACTH
```
Adrenocorticotropic hormone
Secreted by Adrenal Gland
Cortex = inner portion
Helps release corticosteroid H. = hydrocortisone
Corticosteroids
Called “stress hormone”
Responses to stress & anxiety
Used in athletics to reduce swelling/pain of injury.
Reduces immune response.
```
169
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) Secretes
Cortisol and other glucocorticoids.
170
Glucocorticoids
a class of steroid hormones that bind to the glucocorticoid receptor (GR), which is present in almost every vertebrate animal cell.
171
MSH
Melanocyte-stimulating hormone
172
Melanocyte-stimulating hormone
are a class of peptide hormones that are produced by cells in the intermediate lobe of the pituitary gland. Synthetic analogs of these naturally occurring hormones have also been developed and researched.
173
GH (Growth Hormone)
a peptide hormone that stimulates growth, cell reproduction and regeneration in humans and other animals. It is a type of mitogen which is specific only to certain kinds of cells. Growth hormone is a 191-amino acid, single-chain polypeptide that is synthesized, stored, and secreted by somatotropic cells within the lateral wings of the anterior pituitary gland.
(-) pituitary dwarfs = midgets
(+) gigantism (8’+) = pituitary giants
(+) post-puberty = acromegaly
174
Endorphins
endogenous opioid peptides that function as neurotransmitters. They are produced by the pituitary gland.
175
Epinephrine (Adrenalin)
a hormone that is secreted by the adrenal glands.
176
Melatonin
a naturally occurring compound found in animals, plants, and microbes. Secreted in absence of light.
177
Other Emergency Hormones
Anterior Pituitary - endorphins
Thymus – large in young (another lecture)
Prostaglandins – prostate gland
Histamines (another lecture)
178
Conservation Biology -
the scientific study of the nature and status of Earth's biodiversity with the aim of protecting species, their habitats, and ecosystems from excessive rates of extinction and the erosion of biotic interactions.
179
Threats to biodiversity
Five main threats to biodiversity are commonly recognized in the programmes of work of the Convention: invasive alien species, climate change, nutrient loading and pollution, habitat change, and overexploitation.
180
Hot spots
volcanic regions thought to be fed by underlying mantle that is anomalously hot compared with the mantle elsewhere. They may be on, near to, or far from tectonic plate boundaries.
181
biome
are climatically and geographically defined as similar climatic conditions on the Earth, such as communities of plants, animals, and soil organisms,[1] and are often referred to as ecosystems.
182
Equatorial
Always moist and lacking temperature seasonality
| Evergreen tropical rain forest
183
Tropical
Summer rainy season and cooler “winter” dry season
| Seasonal forest, scrub, or savanna
184
Subtropical
Highly seasonal, arid climate
| Desert vegetation with considerable exposed surface
185
Mediterranean
Winter rainy season and summer drought
| Sclerophyllous (drought-adapted), frost-sensitive shrublands and woodlands
186
Warm temperate
Occasional frost, often with summer rainfall maximum
| Temperate evergreen forest, somewhat frost-sensitive
187
Nemoral
Moderate climate with winter freezing
| Frost-resistant, deciduous, temperate forest
188
Continental
Arid, with warm or hot summers and cold winters
| Grasslands and temperate deserts
189
Boreal
Cold temperate with cool summers and long winters
| Evergreen, frost-hardy, needle-leaved forest (taiga)
190
Polar
Very short, cool summers and long, very cold winters
| Low, evergreen vegetation, without trees, growing over permanently frozen soils
