Exam 4 Flashcards
(264 cards)
1
Q
What are the components of the Urinary System?
A
Kidneys, Ureters, Bladder, Urethra
2
Q
Function of the Urinary System
A
Excretion: getting things out of blood
Elimination: getting things out of the body
Homeostasis: maintain fluid balance
3
Q
What part of the urinary system produces urine( excretion)
A
Kidneys
4
Q
What part of the urinary system carries urine outside of the body (elimination)?
A
Urethra
5
Q
What organs are classified as retroparitineal?
A
*THINK SADPUCKER
Super Renal glands Aorta Duodenum Pancreas Ureters Colon (partial) Kidneys Esophagus Rectum
6
Q
Be able to Trace the flow of urine
A
Glomerulus—>
proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) → nephron loop (descending → ascending) → distal convoluted tubule (DCT) → connecting tubule → collecting duct → renal papilla → minor calyx → major calyx → renal pelvis → ureter → urinary bladder → urethra
7
Q
Drains fluid in
A
Ureters
8
Q
Drains fluid out
A
Urethra
9
Q
Folds of the bladder are called?
A
Rugae
10
Q
Bladder fills from _______ ___
Why?
A
Bottom up
Due to the amount of room in bladder. More room on bottom of bladder- linguistics!
11
Q
Be able to trace blood flow to kidneys?
A
- Renal Artery
- Sagmental arteries & veins
- Lobar arteries and veins
- Interlobular arteries & veins
- Arcuate arteries & veins
- Cortical radiate arteries(interlobular) & veins
- Afferent arteriole
- Glomerulus
- Efferent arteriole
A. Leads into peritubular capillaries (always)
B. Vasa recta (sometimes)
12
Q
This is driven by pressure
A
Filtration
13
Q
Filtration is moving from _______ —-> _______
A
Blood to filtrate
Or glomerulus to capsule
14
Q
This is not driven by pressure but involves keeping fluid
A
Reabsorption
15
Q
Reabsorption moves _________ to __________
A
Tubule/nephron to blood
Specifically: tubular fluid –> interstitial fluid—> blood
16
Q
Driven by concentration gradient
A
Secretion
17
Q
Secretion moves _______ to ______
A
Blood —–> tubular fluid
Or
Perit cap—–> DCT
18
Q
This limb is permeable to sodium and chloride
A
Ascending Limb
19
Q
This limb is permeable to water
A
Descending limb
20
Q
As _______ moves out of the ascending limb into the interstitial fluid it draws _______ out of descending limb by osmosis
A
Sodium and chloride
Water
21
Q
Where is Urea reabsorbed?
A
Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)
22
Q
When Hydrostatic Pressure is greater than osmotic pressure what happens?
A
Filtration
23
Q
Amount of filtration per minute
A
Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR)
24
Q
The plasma concentration of compound/ion when it begins to show up in urine
A
Renal Threshold
25
Sodium is ________ transported
Actively
26
In order for fluid to be filtered it has to get through all 3 of these layers
1. Fenestrated capillary (fluid has to fit through pores)
2. Basement membrane
3. Podocyte: slits.
27
Aka foot process
Pedicels
28
Where does filtration take place?
Glomerulus
29
Where does reabsorption of nutrients take place
PCT
30
Where does reabsorption of water take place
PCT
31
Where does secretion take place
...
32
In the presence of ADH, additional water channels are added in which portion of the nephron
Collecting duct & DCT
33
Direction of movement for reabsorption
Tubular fluid from PCT to blood in peritubular capillaries
34
Dieetction of movement for secretion
Blood from peritubular cap to tubular fluid in DCT
35
Intercellular fluid refers to
Cystol
36
Extracellukar fluid refers to
Plasma
Lymph
Interstitial fluid
37
If osmoreceotirs are stimulated due to the increase of sodium in ECF, what is the response?
increase ADH to increase the water retention (?)
38
A low or acidic PH is due to
A increase concentration of hydrogen ions in solution
39
The muscular band that acts as a valve permitting VOLUNTARY control of micturition is the
External sphincter
40
The mucosa of the urinary bladder consists of
Transitional epithelium
41
Glomerular capillaries are
Fenestrated
42
Due to sodium gain and increasing ECF volume, natriuretic Peptides cause what response?
Increase sodium loss in urine
Increase water loss in urine
Decrease thirst
Stimulate ADH and aldosterone
...... ?????
43
ECF
Extracellular Fluid
44
ICF
Intracellular Fluid
45
Function of Extracellular Fluid?
Transport to and from cells
| Constant cellular environment (maintain homeostasis)
46
Intracellular Fluid Function
Solve chemical reactions in cell
47
What is an Anion?
A negative electrolyte
48
What is a Cation?
A positive electrolyte
49
Most common anions?
ICF (intracellular Fluid): Hydrogen phosphate and proteins
| ECF(extracellular Fluid): Cl-
50
Most common Cation?
ICF: K+
ECF: Na+
51
What makes plasma different from interstitial fluid?
Proteins in plasma
52
What makes plasma similar to interstitial fluid
Both extracellular
53
How do we get water in?
Foods, liquids, cellular metabolism
54
How do we get water out?
Kidneys, lungs, skin, intestines
55
When water input is less than output what is the feedback loop?
Blood Volume decreases
Blood pressure decreases
JG releases renin
Angiotensin I & II: aldosterone
Angiotensin I & II: increase thirst
Angiotensin I & II: ADH
56
What does Aldosterone do?
Increase reabsorption of sodium which in return increases the water absorption
Targets DCT and CD
57
What does ADH do?
Retains water by aquaporus on DCT and Collecting Duct
58
Feedback loop: Sodium too high
```
Too High:
1. Increase Na+ in ECF
2. Osmoreceptors stimulated
3. Secretion of ADH increases
Increase water absorption
Increase thirst
4. Water shift from ICF to ECF (fluid comes out of cells)
5. Decrease Na+ concentration
6. Return to Homeostasis
```
59
Feedback: Sodium too Low
1. Decrease Na+ in ECF
2. Osmoreceptors inhibited
3. Secretion of ADH decreases
Suppress thirst
Increase water loss
4. Decrease ECF volume
5. Increase Na concentration
6. Return to Homeostasis
60
Feedback loop: increased sodium causing increase blood Volume( BV)
1. Na increases in ECF
2 homeostatic response increases water intake and retention
3. Increase BV
4. Increase stretch in Atria
Releases ANH
5. ANH secretes Na
Less water absorption- more water going out.. decrease BV and BP
61
CHP ( hydrostatic pressure) > BCOP (osmotic pressure)
Filtration
62
BCOP(osmotic pressure)> CHP(hydrostatic pressure)
Reabsorption
63
Feedback loop: increased BV and BP
1. Increases Fluid (Increase Na causing increases fluid)
2 increase BV and BP
3 atrial distension stimulates ANP
4. ANP: Na secretion, increase H2O, decrease thirst, inhibit competing hormones
5. Decrease BP and BV
6. Homeostasis
64
Feedback loop: decreased BV & BP
1. Loss of fluid: loss of Na causing decreases fluid, decrease BV and BP
2. JG cells detect decrease in drop of renal BP
3. Secrete renin: activate renin-angiotensin system, ADH and Aldosterone
4. Increase Na reabsorption
5. Increase H2O reabsorption
6. increase thirst
7. increase BP = increases BV
8. Return to Homeostasis
65
This diuretic blocks ACE which blocks the production of Angiotensin II... causes a decrease in Aldosterone and decreases activity Na/K exchange pumps
Loop diuretics
66
This diuretic blocks sodium chloride cotransporters in ascending limb
Thiazides diuretics
67
PH below 7.35
Acidosis
68
pH above 7.45
Alkalosis
69
Where does Hydrogen come from?
1. Carbonic acid - metabolism (CO2 produced, converted)
2. Lactic Acid - metabolism (too much pyruvate, convert)
3. Sulfuric Acid- proteins broken down
4. Phosphoric Acid - proteins, DNA breakdown
5. Acidic Ketone Bodies - breakdown fats
70
Respiratory response (quick or slow?)
Takes minutes (very quick)
71
Renal response (quick or slow?)
Takes hours, very slow
72
What is the phosphate buffer system?
H3PO4 ---> H2PO4 + H+ ---> HPO4 + H+ ----> PO4 + H+
73
H3PO4
Phosphoric Acid
74
H2PO4
Dihydrogen phosphate
75
HPO4
Mono Hydrogen phosphate
76
PO4
Phosphate
77
If pH is alkaline, carboxal group donates H+ ion.
| If pH is acidic amino Acid will accept H+ Ion
Protein Buffer System
78
Carbonic Acid Buffer System?
CO2 + H2O H2CO3 HCO3- + H+
79
What is the Respiratory Mechanism?
Burning fat because cannot burn glucose
Creates ketones
80
Respiratory Acidosis Feedback loop?
Ex: hypovenilation
1. Increase CO2 leads to
2. Increase H+ which 3.leads to a decrease pH
4. Chemoreceptors Stimulated
5. Increase Respiratory Rate
Decreases CO2
6. Renal Response: Secrete H+, Reabsorb HCO4
Decreases H+
7. Increase pH
8. Homeostasis
81
Metabolic Acidosis (loss of bicarbonate)
Example: Diarrhea
1. Loss of bicarbonate leads to
2. Increase H+ leads to
3. Decrease pH
4. Stimulates Chemoreceptors
5. Increase Respiratory Rate
Decreases CO2
6. Renal Response: Secretes H+ and Reabsorbs HCO3
Decreases H+
7. increases pH
8. Returns Homeostasis
82
Metabolic Acidosis (loss of Hydrogen)
Example: lactic acidosis, ketone acidosis
1. Breakdown and release H+ which leads to
2. Increase H+ which leads to
3. Decrease pH
4. Stimulates Chemoreceptors
5. Increase Respiratory Rate
Decreases CO2
6 Renal Response: Secretes H+, Reabsorbs HCO3
Decreases H+
7. Increase pH
8. homeostasis
83
Respiratory Alkalosis
Example: Hyperventilating
1. decrease CO2 leads to
2. Decrease H+ leads to
3. increase pH
4. inhibits Chemoreceptors
5. decrease Respiratory Rate
Increases CO2
6. Renal Response: Reabsorbs H+ and Secretes HCO3
Increases H+
7. Decreases pH
8. Homeostasis
84
Metabolic Alkalosis
Example: Vomiting
1. Loss of gastric acid leads to
2. Decrease H+ leads to
3. Increase pH
4. inhibits Chemoreceptors
5. decrease Respiratory Rate
Increases CO2
6. Renal Response: Reabsorbs H+ and Secretes HCO3
Increases H+
7. Decreases pH
8. Homeostasis
85
What are the steps of the Urinary Mechanisms to acidify urine involving secretion of H+
Located in DCT & CD
1. CO2 moves from capillaries to DCT Cells
2. This forms carbonic acid
3. Carbonic Acid Dissociates
4. Releases H+ to urine
5. Phosphate binds to Hydrogen
6. Sodium goes back into cell
7. Binds to bicarbonate
8. Returns to blood
86
What are the steps of urinary mechanism to acidify urine involving sodium exchange pumps
If blood is acidic, exchanges more H+ for excretion of urine
87
What are the steps of urinary mechanism to acidify urine involving ammonia
Located in DCT & CD
1. Amino acid goes into cells
2. Amino acid is then converted into ammonia
3. Ammonia moves into tubule
4. Displace Salt
5. Ammonia binds to Cl- and excepts hydrogen- excreted
6. Na+ moves into cell
7. Binds to bicarbonate --> back to blood
88
Myogenic Mechanism (high BP) feedback loop
1. Increase Renal BP
2. Increase GFR
3 Constrict Afferent Arterioles
4. Decrease Blood Flow= Decrease GFR
89
Tubuloglomerular feedback loop (low BP)
1. Decrease Renal BP
2. decrease GFR
3. Constrict Efferent Arterioles, Stimulate JG Cells( Renin Angiotensin System Activated),
Keep More Na+ & Cl- (decrease water to blood)
4. Increase HP= Increase GFR
90
Whether Referring to Respiratory or metabolic Alkalosis, what are the responses?
Renal: generation of Hydrogen ions, and secretion of bicarbonate
Respiratory: inhibit Chemoreceptors to decrease respiratory Rate
91
_______ may cause respiratory alkalosis, while ______ may cause respiratory acidosis
Hyperventilation; Hypoventilation
92
Metabolic acidosis may be caused by
Too few hydrogen ions, or too many bicarbonate ions
93
The major anion in extracellular fluid is what, while the major intercellular anion is what
Chloride, biphosphate
94
Which of the following hormones play a major role in mediating fluid electrolyte balance?
ADH, ANP, & Aldosterone
95
Atrial Natriiuretic Peptinde hormones
Reduces thirst
Blocks Aldosterone release
Blocks ADH release
96
Hypoventilation would cause
Respiratory Acidosis
97
Prolonged vomiting can result in
Metabolic Alkalosis
98
The lungs respond to metabolic Alkalosis by __________
Decreasing Respiratory Rate
99
The kidneys respond to respiratory Acidosis by
Both excreting Hydrogen ions and generating bicarbonate ions
100
There are how many primary buffering systems in the body?
3
101
Identify the parts of the kidneys that secrete Renin and EPO.
Renin: secreted from juxtaglomerular kidney cells
Epo: is produced by interstitial fibroblasts in the kidney in close association with peritubular capillary and proximal convoluted tubule
102
Identify the type of epithelium found in the ureters and urinary bladder.
Ureters - transitional epithelium
Bladder - transitional epithelium
Proximal urethra - transitional epithelium
Mid-urethra (males) - stratified and pseudostratified columnar
Distal urethra - stratified squamous epithelium
103
Explain what occurs in fluid shift and identify its driving force.
Increasing the ECF solute content can be expected to cause osmotic & volume changes in the ICF - a shift of water out of the cells. Conversely, decreasing ECF osmolality causes water to move into the cells, Thus the ICF volume is determined by the ECF solute concentration.
104
Explain hyperkalemia and hypokalemia.
Hyperkalemia: too much potassium in the body.
Hypokalemia: not enough potassium in the body.
105
the chemical processes that occur within a living organism in order to maintain life
Metabolism
106
the synthesis of complex molecules in living organisms from simpler ones together with the storage of energy; constructive metabolism.
anabolism
107
the breakdown of complex molecules in living organisms to form simpler ones, together with the release of energy; destructive metabolism.
Catabolism
108
How does the body compensate for increased sodium levels in the ECF?
- Osmoreceptors stimulates in hypothalamus.
- Secretion of ADH restricts the loss of water and promotes thirst.
- Osmolarity of ECF increases and water shifts out of the ICF into the ECF to increase ECF volume while decreasing ECF sodium concentractions.
109
High sodium
Hyperatremia
110
Low sodium
Hypoatremia
111
High potassium:
Hyperkalmia
112
Low potassium
Hypokalmia
113
High calcium
Hypercalcemia
114
Low calcium
Hypocalcemia
115
What are the three major systems in the body that control pH balance?
protein buffer system
carbonic acid-bicarbonate
phosphate buffer system
116
What is the carbonic buffer systems response to acidosis?
a drop in pH causes an increased respiratory rate to decrease the partial pressure of carbon dioxide, converting carbonic acid molecules into water.
the kidneys respond by secreting hydrogen ions, removing co2 and reabsorbing bicarbonate to help replenish the bicarbonate reserve.
117
How does the carbonic acid buffer system respond to alkalosis?
- Decreased respiratory rated pc02, effectively converting co2 molecules to carbonic acid.
- kidney tubules respond by conserving hydrogen ions and secreting bicarbonate.
118
How does the protein buffer system increase pH?
Carboxyl group donates a hydrogen ion.
119
How does the protein buffer system decrease pH?
amino acid groups accepts a hydrogen ion
120
What are the functions of the digestive system?
- Ingestion
- Mechanical processing
- digestion
- secretion
- absorption
- excretion
121
What is the term used for the intake of food?
Ingestion
122
The physical breakdown of food is referred to as:
Mechanical processing
123
What occurs in the digestive process during secretion?
the release of enzymes, acids, buffers, water, and salts by the digestive tract
124
The duodenum differs from the rest of the small intestine in that its submucosa contains many __________ that secrete mucus.
Brunner Glands
125
Incisors are used for
Clipping or cutting
126
Bile functions and digestion as a
Emulsifier
127
The longitudinal ribbon of smooth muscle visible on the outer surfaces of the colon just beneath the serosa are the:
Taenia coli
128
Chief Cells secrete
Pepsinogen
129
Which of the following is a function of the liver
Vitamin storage, amino acid metabolism, drug in activation, mineral storage
130
Muscles of the tongue or control by what nerve
Hypoglossal
131
The wall of the small intestine bears a series of folds called the
Plicae Circulares
132
How long is the human small intestine
20 feet
133
The last section of the small intestine is the
Ileum
134
The intestinal phase
Controls the rate at which chyme enters the intestine
135
The large crushing grinding teeth found at the back of each dental arch are
Molars
136
Which of the following is not part of the digestive tract
Liver
137
The major functions of the large and intestine are
Absorption of water
138
The fauces
the spaces between the oral cavity in the oropharynx
139
The visceral paratonia
Covers organs in the peritoneal cavity
140
The fundus of the stomach
Is superior to the junction of the esophagus and stomach
141
The gastric phase last how long
Hours
142
Pancreatic juice contains
Carbohydrase
Proteases
Lipase
143
Muscles of the external anal sphincter are
Skeletal
144
The exocrine secration of the pancreas to drain through __________ ducts
Two
145
What are the accessory organs
Teeth
Pancreas
Liver
146
Cholecystokinin
Did you like secretion of the gallbladder
Stimulates production of pancreatic enzymes
Reduces hunger
Inhibits gastric secretion and Motility
147
The cephalic phase of gastric activity is directed by
CNS
148
Each intestinal villas contains a lymphoid capillary called a
Lacteal
149
The outer layer of a tooth is called
Enamel
150
The cecum is
Where the appendix attaches, a blunt in the pouch, where the ileum empties into the large intestine
151
Deglutition (swallowing) consist of ______ phases
Three
152
Nutrients are observed in the small intestine by the process of
Diffusion, cotransport, facilitated diffusion
153
Ball secretion occurs _______, but bike release occurs _________
Continuously, only when CCK is secreted
154
Gastric activity can be divided into how many phases
Three
155
Pancreatic juice is
Alkaline
156
Swallowing
Begins voluntarily but continues in voluntarily
157
The region of the large intestine includes
Rectum, colon, cecum
158
The pouches of the colon are call the
Haustra
159
There are how many pairs of salivary gland's opening into the oral cavity
3
160
The inner lining of the digestive tract is the
Mucosa
161
The first section of the small intestine is the
Duodenum
162
From the outside in, the correct order of the layers of the digestive tract is
Serosa, muscularis externa, submucosa, mucosa
163
Catobism
Produces ATP and Heat
| Breaks down organic molecules
164
The breakdown a fatty acid molecules into two carbon fragments are called
Beta oxidation
165
High density lipoproteins ______
Are sometimes called good cholesterol
166
The break down is one fatty acid molecule yields ______ the breakdown of one molecule of glucose
More ATP than
167
In glycolysis each molecule of glucose metabolized releases enough energy to form how many molecules of ATP
2
168
Effect of vitamin a deficiency
Retarded growth and blindness
169
Affect of vitamin K deficiency
Bleeding disorders
170
Affective vitamin E deficiency
Anemia
171
Effective vitamin D deficiency
Rockets
172
Amoung the products of glycolysis are ______
ATP
NADH
pyruvic Acid
173
The breakdown of fatty acid molecules in the production of __________, which then enters the citric acid cycle
Acetyl-coenzyme A
174
The TCA or Krebs cycle takes place in the
Mitochondria
175
There are ______ essentially amino acids
10
176
Glycolysis occurs where?
Cytoplasm
177
Glycolysis occurs ____________
Whether or not oxygen is present
178
The final hydrogen ion acceptor in the electron transport chain is ________, forming water
Oxygen
179
The synthesis of glucose is called
Gluconeogenesis
180
Focal point for metabolic regulation and control
Liver
181
Maintains numerous reserves of glycogen and protein
Skeletal tissue
182
No Reserve of lipids, carbohydrates, or proteins
Neural tissue
183
Stores lipids primarily as triglycerides
Adipose tissue
184
The process of cellular respiration in most cells, each molecule of glucose that is metabolized yields enough energy to form ________ molecules of ATP
36
185
The transition between glycolysis and the TCA cycle involves a molecule called
Acetyl coenzyme A
186
Functions of the digestive system!
```
Ingestion
Motility
Secretion
Absorption
Elimination
Digestion
```
187
Salivary amylase digests
Carbs
188
Lingual lipase digests
Fats
189
Baby teeth
Deciduous teeth
190
Adult teeth
Permanent
191
What are the phases of deglutition
1. Oral phase
2. Pharyngeal phase
3. Esophageal phase
192
Where is the swelling reflex located?
Medulla oblongata
193
Explain the oral phase of swallowing (deglutition)
Elevated soft palate, closing off nasopharynx
Reflex response triggered when bolus enters oropharynx
Mouth to oropharynx
194
What mechanism is targeted by aldosterone?
Sodium potassium exchange pumps
195
Where is most potassium found in the body?
In the cells, while the rest is involved in sodium/pottassium exchange pumps.
196
How do loop diuretics work?
By blocking ACE and the production of angiotensin II, decreasing aldosterone and the activity of the sodium/potassium exchange pumps.
197
How to thiazide diruetics work?
By blocking sodium chloride cotransporters in the ascending limb, and indirectly stimulating other types of potassium channels, causing an increase in the secretion of potassium.
198
What occurs in the digestive process during absorption?
movement of organic molecules into interstitial fluid
199
What happens during the digestive process of excretion?
removal of wastes from bodily fluids
200
What happens during defecation?
ejection of materials from the digestive tract
201
What is the purpose of the digestive lining?
Protection against the corrosive effects of acid and enzymes, mechanical stress, and bacteria.
202
Double sheets of peritoneal membrane where blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatic vessels travel, while stabilizing organs and prevent tangling
Mesenaries
203
What is the purpose of the lesser omentum?
Stabilization of the stomach
204
What is the purpose of the greater omentum?
Protection and insulation adipose
205
what is the purpose of the mesentary proper?
suspension of the small intestines
206
In what areas of the digestive tract will you not find peritoneum?
Oral cavity, pharynx, esophogus or rectum.
207
movement of food through the digestive tract
Propulsion
208
ball of digestive contents
Bolus
209
contractions which move materials down the digestive tract, in which circular muscles contract behind the bolus and logitudinal muscles contract in front of the bolus to move the material forward.
peristalsis
210
These contracts churn the bolus, rather than propel.
Segmentation
211
What salivary gland secretes digestive enzymes (salivary amylase)?
Parotid
212
What salivary gland secretes mucus, buffer, and lubricant?
Sublingual
213
what salivary gland secretes, buffer, mucins, enzymes (salivary amylase)
Submandibular
214
glycoproteins responsible for lubrication
Mucins
215
Explain the pharyngeal phase of swallowing:
bolus comes into contact with pharyngeal wall
larynx elevates
epiglottis folds over
216
explain the esophogeal phase of swallowing:
begins with contraction of pharyngeal muscles
forces bolus to the esophogus and then peristalic contraction push it to the stomach
bolus triggers the opening of the esophogeal sphincter to open and allow the bolus to enter the stomach
217
A mixture of materials and stomach secretions that is highly acidic and thick.
Chyme
218
what do chief cells secrete?
Pepsinogen
219
what do pyloric glands secrete?
Mucus
220
What are three phases of gastric activity control?
Cephalic
Gastric
Intestinal
221
What starts the cephalic stage of gastric activity and what does this phase do?
seeing, smelling, or thinking of food.
prepares the stomach for food and produces gastric juice
222
What starts the gastric phase of digestion?
Food arriving at stomach
223
What controls the cephalic phase of GA, Gastric Phase?
Vagus Nerve
neural and local factors
224
What is the neural response of the gastric phase of GA?
stimulation of stretch receptors in the stomach wall and chemoreceptors in the mucosa trigger sensory neurons which intervate parietal and chief cells
225
When does the intestinal phase of GA start?
When Chyme enters stomach
226
Explain the neural response of gastric activity during the intestional phase?
chyme leaves the stomach, distention lessens, stretch receptor stimulation decreases, while chyme entering the duodenum stimulates stretch and chemoreceptors.
The enterogastric reflex inhibits gastric production, contractions, and stimulates the pyloric sphincter.
227
90% of nutritent absorption occurs in the
Small intestine
228
what does pancreatic alpha amylase do?
Breakdown starches
229
provides digestive enzymes and buffers to neutralize chyme
Pancreas
230
produces bile into the small intestine containing buffers and bile salts
Liver
231
he digestive functioning of the pancreas is mostly controlled by
Hormones in the duodenum
232
what does pancreatic lipase do?
Breaks down lipids
233
what do nucleases do?
Breakdown RNA & DNA
234
what do proteolytic enzymes do?
Break down proteins
235
proteolytic enzymes are activated in the
Small intestine
236
What are the classes of lipids?
Hormones, cholesterol, steroids, fatty acids
237
many monosaccharides condensed by dehydration synthesis - glycogen, starch.
Polysaccharide
238
two simple sugars condensed by dehydration synthesis - sucrose, maltose, lactose.
Disaccharide
239
Simple sugars with 3 to 7 carbon atoms - glucose, fructose, galactose
Monosaccharide
240
Why are ketones dangerous?
They cannot be absorbed by the liver, and return to circulation via the peripheral tissues where they are converted back to acetyl-koa.
The dissociate in solution, releasing a hydrogen ion that lowers pH
241
What are the five important components regarding metabolism?
```
liver
adopose tissue
skeletal muscle
neural tissue
peripheral tissues
```
242
Why are proteins not an ideal source of ATP?
more difficult to break apart
makes ammonium ions, which are toxic
needed elsewhere - for structure and functioning of cells
243
the hydrogen and amino group are removed from an amino acid, yielding an amoonium ion. Ammonium goes on to the liver, where it is coverted to urea via the urea cycle.
Deamination
244
attaches an amino group to a keto acid, then coverts the keto acid into a form that can exit the mitochondria and be used for protein synthesis
Transamination
245
equal lipids and proteins, lipids mostly cholesterol and phospholipids, transports extra cholesterol from tissues to liver for exrection through the bile - "good cholesterol"
Hi density lipoprotein's
246
made of cholesterol, even less phospholipids, very few tryglycerides, deliver cholesterol to peripheral tissues that can end up in the heart - "bad cholesterol"
Low density lipoprotein's
247
mainly tryglicerides, produces by intestinal epithelial cells from fats in food, carry fats from the intestinal tract to the bloodstream
Chlymicrons
248
all cells use _____ for plasma membranes
Lipids
249
the synthesis of lipids
Lipogenesis
250
At rest, cells will use ______ - when active, cells will use ______ because it can be used immediately.
Lipids, glucose
251
Do lipids generate more or less ATP than carbs?
more
252
One fatty acid molecule can generate _____ ATP.
144
253
every time a fatty acid is broken down __ ATP are generated.
12
254
calcium absorption is: passive/active
Active
255
sodium is absorbed via:
diffusion, cotransport, and active transport
256
ll chemical reactions in an organism
Metabolism
257
reactions that happen in a cell
Cellular metabolism
258
breakdown of organic molecules
Catabolism
259
synthesis of new molecules
Anabolism
260
What are the three steps of lipid catabolism?
- lipids are broken up via hydrolysis to produce one glycerol and three fatty acids
- glycerol is converted to pyruvic acid
- pyruvic acid enters the citric acid cycle
261
What happens to fatty acids in lipid metabolism?
broken into 2 carbon molecules which are attached to acetyl-coA and enter the citric acid cycle
262
Molecule with a peptide bond
peptide
263
3 or more Peptides
Polypeptide
264
Polypeptide with 100 amino acids
Protein
