exam 4 Flashcards
Shackleton and the nimrod expedition
Wilson didn’t go due to his loyalty to Scott. After raising enough funds, Shackleton took 15 men/400 applicants to New Zealand then to McMurdo. The most treacherous part of the journey would be the glaciers w/ crevasses after getting off the ice shelf. The plan was to have sledges drop supplies ahead of them to the polar plateau. In the spring, Shackleton set out with three men using ponies for the first leg. He made it the farthest south on the plateau, but turned back for his men’s safety (weak/low on food). Discovered the south magnetic pole, Shackleton was hailed as a hero and one of the greatest explorers in British history (always put his men first, never lost a man).
Cape royds
Shackleton wanted to set up quarters on the ice shelf, but saw it had collapsed/was unreliable. Hut Point was closed off by ice, so they placed their prefab hut on Cape Royds (even farther from the SP, but the closest ice-free area). Hut barely differs today.
Douglas Mawson and the South magnetic pole
An Australian geologist on the nimrod expedition. Made the first ascent of Mt. Erebus where he studied lake and ocean waters and kept a meteorological station to keep busy. He was in a party of three that set out for the south magnetic pole with car towing sledges, and helped set depots across the sea ice. Found the MSP and returned to nimrod.
First use of motor vehicles an ponies for polar travel
Shackleton brought them on the Nimrod expedition. Motor vehicles got stuck in the snow and overheated more than froze. Ponies/horses post holed into the snow, which slowed them down, and were eventually shot.
Significance of shackeltons attempt on the pole
Made it farthest South (to the polar plateau over 10,000 ft elevation), found the south magnetic pole, first ascent of Mt. Erebus, cars/ponies not efficient, hailed as a hero for putting his men’s safety first.
Robert Falcon Scott and the Terra Nova Expedition
Another attempt to reach the south pole. Bought an old whaling ship (Terra Nova), and brought Wilson.
Ronald Amundsen and why he switched from North to South Pole
Soon after Scott left on his Terra Nova Expedition he received a telegram from Amundsen stating he was going to the south pole after Robert Peary made it to the north pole. Amundsen had been working in the arctic and gained lots of polar experience there. His men didn’t know he switched from north to south until after they left port.
Differences between Scott and Amundsen for the polar travel and objectives
Amundsen: was better prepared/had more experience (one trip to the antarctic, and had been working in the arctic), brought sleds skis and dogs, set up on the Ross Ice Shelf and kept men busy throughout winter.
Scott: took one previous trip to antarctic, only brought ponies and planned to manhaul sleds in deep snow, set hut up on Cape Evans, doing more research (brought a larger group), and separated people based on military protocol
Both prepared in Spring, neither knew when the other would leave.
Edward Wilson and Apsley Cherry Gerard
Wilson wanted to study Emperor Penguins (thought to be the most prehistoric egg in the world - embryonic info). 3 men inc. Wilson & ACG made a winter journey to Cape Crozier (also did study on amount of calories needed for man-hauling for Scott in spring). ACG wrote “The Worst Journey in the World” to get to emperor penguin colony, made it, almost died.
Worst journey int he world, objectives and results
Had to double the length of the journey (took 3 men to haul one sled then go back for the other). Were gone 37 days. Made a stone-hut on Cape Crozier, and almost lost the tent they used for a roof (would have been a death sentence on the way back). Weight of cargo increased as they went along (sweat froze, added cargo, etc.) Broke one egg on the way back. Apsley had health problems the rest of his life in part due to the journey.
Herbert pointing and photography
Photographer on the Terra Nova Expedition, and made a film called 90º South. Did advertising in antarctic to help with trip funding.
Journeys to the pole by Amundsen and Scott, timing, differences
Amundsen left in September, faced harsh conditions, made it to the pole first in December. Scott didn’t leave until November. Man-hauled sledges/skied, moved slower, reached the pole in January.
Depots for Polar travel
All teams started laying depots with food/supplies in the spring to prepare for journeys to the pole
reasons for Scotts deaths
Scott stopped to collect geological samples on the way back from the pole (1st glysopteris fossils). They got trapped by a blizzard which made travel brutally difficult. Evans died at the base of a glacier and Oats sacrificed himself on his birthday. Then Scott, Wilson and Bowers died between One Ton & Mt. Hooper depot in their tent. Apsley tried to find him, but turned back when a fellow man faked sick, since Scott wasn’t overdue.`
Aftermath of Scotts death in england
Scott was an immediate national hero (later critics claimed he didn’t prepare properly enough). ACG spent the rest of his life feeling remorseful w/ PTSD, health problems and bouts of depression.
Scotts northern party and inexpressible island
Had a norther party of about 5-6 men in Ross Sea initially on Cape Adare to do mapping. They set up their camp on the upper terrace to watch for the ship. They were then brought to Inexpressible Island where they got stuck for the winter in a snow cave. Raymond Priesely wrote a book describing winds that are constant (180 days of winds), ones who named the island.
Cape Evans and Falcon Scott
Cape Evans is preserved and maintained by the New Zealand Heritage Trust. Falcon Scott (RFS’s grandson) helped 100 years later and went to the South Pole. Hut was used by RFS on Terra Nova Expedition.
The endurance and far in the ice for Shackleton
Shackleton got stuck in the Weddell Sea. Frank Hurley documented it with photos. The ship drifted far after it was trapped midsummer. As the ice started to melt in the spring it crushed and sank the ship.
Elephant island and the boat journey, rogue waves
After the endurance sank they had to row boats w/ dogs to make it over open water. The closest island determined by Worsely was Elephant Island. They had limited resources and had to move on from the island. Shackleton, Caird, Crean (sailor) and Worsely left to pass Drake’s passage to reach SG w/ whaling stations. They took the problem men, and put skins over the top of the boat to prevent waves. On the journey they hit a massive rogue wave (caused by seismic activity, change in currents, and disappear quickly).
South Georgia Island and trek across mountains
Shackleton landed 17 miles and a mountain range away from Stromness. Left the two problem men at the beach and took Worsely and Crean to trek for two days straight with no gear and eventually made it to Stromness after a year of being gone. Picked men up from the beach, used an Argentine ship to get men from Elephant Island & Ross Sea party left. They were all sent to WWI, and Shackleton later returned to find men’s bodies.
Shackleton’s new expedition and death at grytviken
Ended shortly after Shackleton died in 1922. After that, there were few other excursions south.
End of heroic age
ended shortly after Shackleton died in 1922. After that, there were few other excursions.
Richard Byrd and naval flight
An American naval flight instructor who was the first to fly over the arctic.
Little America and Byrd’s first expedition to Antartica
He obtained funds, planes, and set up a base near Amundsen’s old base on the Ross Ice Shelf. The base was called Little America. Byrd and his men spent the winter on the base. The following summer he flew to the pole. Had a sled party on the ice shelf that did geological research, discovered sedimentary rock, mountain ranges, and more evidence that Antarctica was a continent. Byrd was celebrated/promoted to rear-admiral back home.
Flight to the pole and back
After wintering in Little America, the following summer Byrd flew to the pole in 15 hours. Had to throw things out of the plane to make it lighter to make it over the plateau.
Byrd’s Second expedition and little America 2
Byrd returned to Antarctica and set up LAII to do research. Spent a year gathering data on climate, atmosphere, used tractors/other machinery to explore inland, and made more flights. He spent part of the winter in a weather station alone where he developed CO poisoning from a leaky stove which weakened him daily. He tried to fake fine with his men over radio calls until the they realized he was sick and went to rescue him.
Scientific discoveries and advances at little America 2
Discovered there was no strait between Ross and Weddell seas indicating Antarctica is one large continent. Also discovered new mountain ranges, more life than expected, and that more meteorites bombard Earth than previously known. Set the foundation for modern scientific studies in Antarctica.
territorial claims in antartica
At the same time Byrd was advancing research in Antarctica, many countries started to lay claim to Antarctic territories. France claimed Adelie Land which irritated Australia who sent Mawson to lay claims. Norway and Germany were involved as well (Hitler disregarded claims and sent aircraft to drop markers).
Ross and Falkland Island dependencies
Britain established the Ross Island Dependency and claimed between 150-160º longitude for New Zealand following the Falkland Island Dependencies between 20-80º longitude.
Claims associated with taxes on whaling
Some countries made claims to avoid taxes on whaling, but WWII ended much of this, especially for Germany.
Lincoln Ellsworth and first transantarctic flight
He left for the bay of whales in the ross sea, but had to abort due to plane damage. The following year he went to Snow Hill, but weather caused another abort. Finally the following summer he flew from Dundee island in 22 days to Little America. He rediscovered Nordenskjold’s hut on Snow Hill (hut indicated the men left in a hurry, and the chocolate was still good after 30 years). He also discovered the Ellsworth Mountains on the microplate, complete aerial surveys, claimed lands for the US, and was the first to see parts of western Antarctica.
who was Lincoln ellsworth
Ellsworth was an aviator who helped Amundsen in the arctic, and wanted to make a transantarctic flight.
where is Ellsworths plane now
at the air and space museum
little America 3 and first color photographs
US established the U.S. Antarctic Service and sent Byrd to do more research at Little America III (same area on ice shelf as I and II near bay of whales). He returned to the US 2 years later with new data and the first color photos of Antarctica.
Operation high jump and little America IV
After WWII, the US navy sent a fleet of ships to gather more info and set up stations. Had to do with the start of the cold war and USSR growing interest in Antarctica. Byrd was in charge of the central group and set up LAIV near LAIII. Completed aerial surveys inland, and discovered new mountain ranges. The eastern and western groups mapped more coastline.
First use of icebreakers and helicopters
Occurred during Operation Highjump, used by the central group lead by Byrd.
discovery of ‘oasis’ at hunger hills
Western fleet discovered a large ice-free area at Bunger Hills during operation highjump (now part of Australian territories).
U.S. proclamation cairn at Peterson island
Canister, flag, and documents placed by a fleet that followed the Western group in operation windmill. Originally sent to the Davis Sea & Bunger coast to map control points for aerial photos from the western group.
genesis of the IGY an previous intentional polar years
There had already been two previous IPY dealing with arctic research. After WWI problems in radio communication provided impetus to have another IPY to better understand earth’s magnetic field and electrical geophysics (considerable data on weather and meteorology collected, but most was lost during WWII). The IGY got Antarctic research going, and this was also when most stations were established.
International council of scientific unions
Proposal for the IGY was approved by the ICSU which represented 67 countries. They made the year 18 months to allow for establishment time/data collection. While the focus of the IGY was global, they decided to make Antarctica and outer space the primary focus.
Lloyd Berkner and Sydney Chapman
Advancements in rocket science and seismology led physicist Dr. Lloyd Berkner to suggest another IGY (not polar because he wanted the focus to be on space studies and radio waves) to use modern techniques to study earth’s surface and atmosphere. Berkner had been apart of Byrd’s first expedition. Sydney Chapman suggested 1957-58 for the IGY years.
Why 1957-58 for IGY
Years were suggested due to the high sunspot activity. Data could also be contrasted to the low sunspot activity during the last IPY.
Why are sunspots relevant to us on earth
sunspots interfere with radio waves, and can give us a better understanding of radio communication issues
What was the main focus of the IGY & what were the implications for the future
Meetings were held and it was agreed that Antarctica and outer space would receive the most attention. The 12 countries involved in the IGY were fundamental in later setting up the Antarctic Treaty.
USSR and Sputnik 1
In October 1957 the USSR surprised the world and launched the first artificial satellite (size of a basketball, 1st satellite to go up and do an orbit)
Cold War and the space race
Launch of Sputnik I worried the US and started the space race to develop new technologies and eventually military during the cold war.
US concerns in Antartica
US was concerned that the Soviet Union would begin placing military bases in Antarctica, so they wanted to increase their presence.
Operation deepfreeze and little America 5
As a prelude to the IGY the US sent admiral Byrd to Antarctica one more time. He established LAV 30 miles east of LAIV, along with six other stations
Establishment of IGY research stations
12 countries established 40 stations (7 by the US) in Antarctica and an additional 20 on islands.
US stations
Byrd and Little America were abandoned, Wilkes was turned over to Australia, and Ellsworth was turned over to Argentina (abandoned due to unstable conditions on the ice shelf).
Pros and cons of the IGY stations
The stations weren’t careful until after the antarctic treaty and were harmful to the areas they were built on, but very important research was done.
extension of IGY
Participation by the US, USSR, Belgium & Argentina to propose a 12 month extension to the IGY. It was clear by then that US and other countries intended to keep their presence in Antarctica so extension was granted. Ended up keeping presence indefinitely.
Formation of SCAR by ICSU and effectiveness for science
ICSU formed the scientific committee for antarctic research that included delegates from all countries actively involved. It’s still present as one of the most effective committees ever formed.
Scientific accomplishments in IGY and genesis for Antarctic treaty
On a global scale the IGY was very successful: First space program, discovery of van allen belts (can be damaging to satellites/space travel), initiation of atmospheric studies on carbon & ozone, new info on glacial dynamics, genesis for the antarctic treaty
William Bruce and the Scottish National Antarctic Expedition
W.S Bruce led a scottish national antarctic expedition to Laurie Island. He received help from Argentina establishing the hut he stayed in.
Stone Hut on Laurie Island, south orkneys
W.S. Bruce offered his hut and meteorological station to the British, but they turned it down so he gave it to Argentina
Longest continuous occupation in antartica, by argentina
Argentina established the longest continuous recorded occupation in Antarctica at the stone hut on Laurie Island in the South Orkneys
1908 territorial claim by britain
The claim by Britain included the Falkland and South Orkney Islands
Falkland War 1982
Claim by Britain on the Falkland/South Orkney Islands led to disputes with Argentina and eventually led to the Falkland war (only shot ever fired in the Antarctic)
territorial claims, 1940’s
By 1940 a number of wedge shaped claims had been made, though some were restricted to just some islands or part of the coast.
overlapping claims and problems
Only Britain, Chile, and Argentina had overlapping claims. Chile and Argentina tried to make separate claims of priority based on a decree from the 1400s
agreement between Chile and argentina
The two countries eventually agreed to a harmonious plan of action for the better scientific knowledge of the Antarctic zone by means of exploration and technical investigations.
US position and attempt for peace with UN trusteeship
The US tried to stay neutral despite non-assertive claims. They proposed that Antarctica become a trust territory, though only NZ agreed to relinquish its claims. Then, Chapman and Berkner proposed the IGY and research, along with 12 other countries, shaped Antarctica’s future.
Claimant vs non-claimant nations
There were 7 claimant (made claims) and 5 non-claimant nations involved in Antarctic research during the IGY
