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Microbiology > Exam 4 (Applications of Immunology, Immunological Disorders, Infection & Disease) > Flashcards

Exam 4 (Applications of Immunology, Immunological Disorders, Infection & Disease) Flashcards

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1
Q

Active Immunity

A

You synthesize your own antibody after being exposed to an antigen (you come in contact with the microbe)

  • Makes memory cells
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2
Q

Passive Immunity

A

you receive an antibody synthesized by somewhere else who was exposed to an antigen (someone passed it on to you // IgG and IgA from mother to child)

  • Rapid protection and short duration
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3
Q

Naturally acquired active immunity

A

a person develops their own antibody after being exposed to the natural form of the antigen

  • makes memory cells
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4
Q

Naturally acquired passive immunity

A

a person receives an antibody from someone who has been exposed to the natural form

  • IgG (placenta)
  • IgA (breast milk)
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5
Q

Artificially acquired active immunity

A

a person develops an antibody after being exposed to an artificial form of the antigen

  • makes memory cells
  • ex. flu shot
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6
Q

Artificially acquired passive immunity

A

a person receives an antibody from someone or something else that has been exposed to an artificial form of the antigen

  • ex. antivenom
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7
Q

Vaccination

A

the process of deliberately stimulating active immunity by an inducer

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8
Q

Live-Attenuated Vaccines

A

contains living microorganisms that have been altered so that they don’t cause disease

Pros:
- get a strong immune response = longer lasting = more effective

Cons:
- microbe could evolve
- must be refrigerated to preserve
- more difficult to produce
- not recommended for the young, old, pregnant women, or immunocompromised

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9
Q

Inactivated Vaccine

A

contains microorganisms that have been killed by heat, chemicals, or radiation; or pieces of microorganisms that still elicit an immune response

Pros:
- incapable of causing disease
- easy to produce
- more easily stored

Cons:
- weaker immune response
- usually required multiple doses or “booster shots” to get full immunity

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10
Q

mRNA or DNA based Vaccine

A

COVID-19 vaccines

  • spikes on virus
  • mRNA or DNA goes into a vector (ex. adenovirus)
  • vector delivers to a cell (mRNA -> cytoplasm // DNA -> nucleus)
  • spikes show up on our cells surface
  • the body sees the spikes as foreign
  • there are many variants of COVID-19
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11
Q

Examples of Live Attenuated Vaccines:

A
  1. BCG
  2. Typhoid Oral
  3. Sabin’s Oral Polio
  4. Yellow Fever
  5. Measles
  6. Rubella
  7. Mumps
  8. Chicken Pox
  9. Influenza
  10. Epidemic Typhus
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12
Q

Examples of Inactivated or Killed Vaccines

A
  1. Typhoid
  2. Cholera
  3. Pertussis
  4. C.S. Meningitis
  5. Plague
  6. Rabies
  7. Salk Polio
  8. Influenza (given through nose)
  9. Hepatitis B
  10. Hepatitis A
  11. Japanese Encelphalitis
  12. KFD
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13
Q

Examples of Toxoids (modified toxins)

A
  1. Diptheria
  2. Tetanus
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14
Q

Herd Immunity (purpose of vaccinations)

A
  • when a specific population is protected against a specific microbe through natural and or/artificial means
  • has to be genetically stable
  • small pox is the only virus we achieved herd immunity against
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15
Q

Diagnostics tests

A

since our bodies produce an antibody due to being exposed to an antigen, we can use this immune response to:

  1. diagnose infectious disease
  2. detect pregnancies
  3. determine blood types, etc.
    (immunoassay tests)
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16
Q

Precipitation tests (baseline tests that can be modified)

A
  1. Involves soluble (free-floating) antigens
  2. React with IgG or IgM antibodies
  3. The development of a precipitin ring or a precipitate means a positive test
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17
Q

Agglutination tests

A
  1. Involves particulate (antigens attached to a solid such as a RBC) antigen
  2. The observance of clumping or agglutinates indicates a positive test
  3. Can be used to determine blood type
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18
Q

Fluorescent-Antibody Tests

A
  1. Used to identify microorganisms in clinical specimen (blood specimen, urine specimen)
  2. Uses antibodies that have been labelled by a fluorescent dye
  3. Need to use a fluorescent microscope to see the dye
  4. Can be done direct or indirect

Direct: primary antibody -> to epitope -> antigen

Indirect: secondary antibody -> attached to primary antibody -> to epitope -> antigen

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19
Q

Complement Fixation

A

Occurs when a complement serum protein binds to an antibody/antigen complex

  • Uses sheep RBC + antibody to sheep RBC to determine if the complement is fixed or not

If complement attaches to antigen-antibody complex = no lysis of RBC –> POSITIVE TEST // ANTIBODIES IN SERUM

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20
Q

Neutralization test

A
  1. Test blocks the harmful effects of a bacterial toxin or virus
  2. Used to test the effectiveness of an antibody

Toxin molecules + cell = cell damaged by toxin

Toxin + antibodies to toxin + cell = neutralized toxin and undamaged cell

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21
Q

Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA)

A
  1. Most common used enzyme immunoassay
  2. Direct ELISA detects antigens
  3. Indirect ELISA detects antibodies

Direct:
1. Antibody in well
2. Antigen from patient is added
3. Secondary antibody attaches to antigen
4. Substrate changes color = positive for antigens

Indirect:
1. Antigen in well
2. Antibody from patient is added
3. Secondary antibody attaches to first antibody
4. Substrate changes color = positive for antibodies

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22
Q

Monoclonal Antibodies

A

The primary and secondary antibodies used in the ELISA test are monoclonal antibodies

  • Lab produced proteins that act like natural antibodies in your body, targeting specific cells or proteins to help the immune system fight diseases
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23
Q

Hypersensitivities (acute: rapid immune response)

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A

Type I - immediate (< 30 min)
- inflammation
- smooth muscle spasms
- IgE
2 Types:
1) Local anaphylaxis: one spot on the body and works against the host immune response
2) Systemic Anaphylaxis: all over the body

Type II - cytotoxic (5-12 hours)
- kills cells by complement and phagocytosis
- interferes with cell functions
- the immune system mistakenly targeting and destroying the body’s own cells
- IgG and IgM
- Based off of particulate antigens, also called cell surface markers. Ex. A, B AB, Rh antigens on RBCs

Type III - immune complex (3-8 hours)
- inflammation
- IgG and IgM(maybe)
- Involves soluble antigens which are free-floating antigens
1) Immune complexes are deposited in the wall of a blood vessel
2) Presence of complexes causes inflammation
3) Enzymes release from neutrophils causing damage to endothelial cells on basement membrane

Type IV - delayed (24-72 hours)
- inflammation
- cytotoxic (delayed)
- Td cells // Macrophages // Tc cells
1) Sensitized T-cells ->
2) Contact with Specific Antigens
3) Release cytokines
4) Effects on leukocytes, macrophages and tissue cells

1-3: B-cells and Antibody Mediated

4: T-cell and Inflammatory Molecules Mediated

24
Q

Hypersensitivities are caused by an exaggeration of the host immune response to an antigen

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A

Ex. a person climbs a tree because of a barking two pound dog

  • Occurs when the host immune response recognizes an antigen as an allergen
25
Allergen is a molecule that the host immune response "sees" as more dangerous than it really is
- All allergens are antigens but not all antigens are allergens In order to have a hypersensitivity, you must be sensitized to the allergen (develop a chemical response)
26
Sensitization is a process where you develop chemical reactions that may lead to hypersensitivity
Ex. Using Pollen 1. Pollen is inhaled by host 2. Pollen is phagocytized by a macrophage (antigen presenting cell) 3. Pollen is "seen" as an allergen by macrophage and is presented on the cell surface by MHC II 4. Macrophage releases cytokines that recruit and activate T helper cells 5. T helper cells also releases cytokines to communicate with B-cells 6. B-cells release IgE which binds to mast cells 7. Host is now considered to be sensitized (host does not know) 8. If host comes in contact with pollen again, pollen binds to the antigen binding site of IgE on mast cell -> mast cell degranulates 9. Degranulation = mast cells release a lot of histamine which causes an allergic reaction
27
Target Cells for Histamine
1. Mucosa cells - causes the synthesis of mucous 2. Tears cells - causes tearing 3. Nerve cells - causes itching 4. Blood vessels - causes vasodilation 5. Bronchial cells - causes bronchoconstriction (epinephrine causes bronchiodialtion)
28
Type II Autoimmune Disorder
- the immune system mistakenly targeting and destroying the body's own cells: CHRONIC Grave's Disease: - Surface cell markers on the thyroid are "seen" as foreign and the host immune response makes more autoantibodies to these surface cell markers - OVER ABUNDANCE of thyroixine
29
Type II Autoimmune Disorder
Tissue damage Ex. - Systemic lupus - Heart attacks - Rheumatoid arthritis
30
Type IV Autoimmune Disorder
Triggered by a response Ex. Type I diabetes or Juvenile Onset Diabetes
31
Transplantation
When a transplant recipient rejects the transplanted tissue 1. Xenograft - transplanted tissue from an animal onto a human 2. Allograft - transplants between non identical twins 3. Isograft - transplants between identical twins 4. Autograft - transplants from one place on the body to another place on the body Human Leukocyte Antigens (HLA) is only identical in identical twins. Patients waiting for a donor tissue have to be matched. "New Skin" - growing someones skin in a lab and transplanting that skin on top of the patients area that has been affected Td cells -> IL 2 -> T cells/macrophages = rejects transplant
32
Immunosuppression
when the host immune system is suppressed by an anti-suppressant - anti-IL-2 drug (interluken 2 cytokine) - Side effect: immunocompromised (don't give the patient a live-attenuated vaccine)
33
Congenital Immunodeficiency
A baby can be born with a very mild form of immunodeficiency to a severe case; the baby has no host immune response or immunodeficiency - SCID: born without a host immune response
34
Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS)
Category A: HIV; patient is asymptomatic Category B: starts to exhibit the signs and symptoms of AIDS Category C: full blown AIDS
35
An infection has to get through the nonspecific and specific host defenses to cause a disease
36
Infection:
the initial colonization of a host by a microbe
37
Steps or Stages of Disease:
1. Incubation: absence of any signs/symptoms; most dangerous stage because you aren't aware that you have the disease and you are spreading it; mult. itself within the host - Attachment - Masking/hiding - Evasion (has been detected by host) - Invasion (microbe moves from one place to another) 2. Prodromal: observe the first signs/symptoms 3. Illness: experience the full affects; sneezing, coughing, etc. 4. Decline: decrease of the signs and symptoms 5. Recovery: disease is dissipated
38
Pathology
Study of disease 1) Etiology: the identification of the causative agent of disease (what) - Uses Koch's Postulates to identify the microbe 2) Pathogenesis: how a microbe causes a disease
39
Koch's Postulates
1. Observes a sick animal 2. Isolate the microbe (purify) 3. Inject the microbe into an experimental animal which is healthy 4. Observe the same signs/symptoms LIMITATIONS: - humans are the only carriers of AIDS, nobody can test on - Our lab of the unknown bacteria ID used Koch's Postulates steps
40
Pathogen
Virulence factors: Yes Disease causing: Yes - more likely to causes an infectious disease
41
Nonpathogen
Virulence factors: small amounts or none - Less likely to cause a disease or none - Opportunistic infections - "safe" as long as they stay in their confined space We can share one of three symbiotic relationships with nonpathogenic bacteria: 1. Mutualistic - both organisms benefit from each other 2. Commensalistic - one organism benefits while the other is not harmed 3. Parasitic - one organism benefits and the other is harmed
42
The biggest factor if a microbe is going to be pathogenic or not is the presence or absence of virulence factors
Virulence factors - molecules that enhance a microbe's ability to cause disease - More virulence factors = more pathogenic - During incubation, the microbe has to express the right amount of virulence factors at the right time = sequential timing - The quantifying of the microbes = quorum sensing
43
Virulence Factors for Each Step of Incubation
1) Attachment: 1 x 10^8 CFU - adhesions (pili, fimbriae) 2) Masking/hiding: 2 x 10^8 CFU - protein A - capsules - enveloped virus 3) Evasion: 3 x 10^8 CFU - capsules - proteases that breakdown C3A, C3B, C5A and Antibodies - Leukocidins (destroys WBC) // Endotoxins; sugar, direct, gram -, not excreted outside of cell // Exotoxins: protein, indirect, gram +, excreted outside of cell 4. Invasion: 4 x 10^8 CFU - Hemolysins (breakdown RBC) - Coagulases (stops blood from clotting) - Collagenases (breakdown the collagen layer)
44
Patterns of Disease:
1. Acute - comes and goes quickly 2. Chronic - stays for extended period of time 3. Persistent - comes and goes repeats 4. Latent - asymptomatic for a long time until the disease manifests itself in the host
45
Disease Occurrence in Populations
- Sporadic: occasional cases occurring at irregular intervals (ex. ebola) - Endemic: continuous occurrence at an expected frequency over a certain period of time in a certain geographical location (colds of flu) - Epidemic or Outbreak: occurrence in a community or region of cases of an illness with a frequency clearly in excess of normal expectancy - Pandemic: epidemic involves several countries or continents, affecting a large population
46
How does an infection become a pandemic?
- delayed health response - global interconnectedness - biological traits
47
How can we stop the progression of an infection in our population?
- vaccination - washing your hands/personal hygiene
48
The spread of disease starts with a reservoir which is a consistent source of the bacteria
Reservoir -> mode of transmission -> host
49
Reservoirs of Infection
1. Humans: can be carriers (can carry the disease but doesn't have symptoms) 2. Animals: "Zoonoses"; animal diseases transmitted to humans (rabies, Lyme disease) 3. Non-living: contaminated water (Vibrio, Salmonella); soil (Clostridium, Fungi)
50
Nosocomial Infections
hospital acquired infection
51
Modes of Transmissions:
1. Direct Contact: physical touch 2. Indirect Contact: reservoir on some fomite (temp. source) - doorknobs, countertops, etc. 3. Vehicle Transmission: microbe moves through some type of moving inanimate object (water, food, air, blood, body fluids, etc.) 4. Vector Transmission: - Biological: lives in an animal or insect; has to bite you - Mechanical: present on surface of animal or insect; doesn't have to bite you
52
Types of Mechanical Vectors:
roaches, ants, flies, rats/mice, humans
53
Types of Biological vectors: (has to bite you)
- Mosquitoes (females): causes malaria - Tsetse flies: causes African sleeping sickness - Kissing bugs: causes Chagas' disease (if it bites you and gets your blood, it can defecate on you. If you scratch yourself, the disease will get inside you)
54
If you get rid of the insect, you get rid of the microbe causing the disease because the microbe partly develops inside of the vector
55
Epidemiology
the study of who, what why when and how of disease - CDC (Atlanta) - WHO (New York)
56
Why has smallpox been the only disease we have eradicated?
Genetically stable 1. Easily observable 2. It doesn’t mutate 3. It does not have any biological vectors 4. Humans are the only reservoir

Microbiology (7 decks)

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