Exam 5 Flashcards
(178 cards)
1
Q
Learning
A
A relatively permanent change in behavior and knowledge that occurs as a result of prior experience
2
Q
Behaviorism
A
Explained solely in terms of directly observable events
Avoids organism’s unobservable mental state
Only interested in Stimulus-Response
3
Q
Association Learning
A
People learn by making connections or bonds
4
Q
Classical Conditioning
A
Making an association between two stimuli (by pairing them) such that one stimulus comes to elicit a response that originally was elicited by the other stimulus
5
Q
Ivan Pavlov
A
Russian Physiologist by training
Found dogs salivated or drooled when no food was present
6
Q
Basic Terminology of Classical Conditioning: Neutral Stimulus: NS
A
A stimulus that does not naturally elicit a (the desired) response in an organism
Wished trigger
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Q
Basic Terminology of Classical Conditioning: Unconditioned Stimulus: UCS
A
Not learned stimulus
A stimulus that elicits a reflexive or innate response (the UCR) without prior learning (conditioning)
Natural trigger
8
Q
Basic Terminology of Classical Conditioning: Unconditioned Response: UCR
A
Unlearned (not learned) response
A reflexive or innate response that is elicited by a stimulus (the UCS) without prior learning
Natural response to natural trigger
9
Q
Basic Terminology of Classical Conditioning: Conditioned Stimulus: CS
A
A previously neutral stimulus that, through association with a UCS, comes to elicit a conditioned response similar to the original UCR
Learned trigger
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Q
Basic Terminology of Classical Conditioning: Conditioned Response: CR
A
A response elicited by a conditioned stimulus
Learned response to learned trigger
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Q
Additional Terminology of Classical Conditioning: Acquisition
A
The period during which a response is being learned
Measured in trials
12
Q
CC: Acquisition: Trial
A
Every time the NS and UCS are presented together
13
Q
CC: Acquisition: Temporal Pairings
A
The interval pairing of the NS-UCS also affects conditioning (the way in which you present the NS and UCS and how much time elapses between presentation)
Forward, Simultaneous, Backward
14
Q
Forward Classical Conditioning/Forward Temporal Pairing
A
NS comes before the UCS
Best one (makes learning easier)
Short Delay
Trace
15
Q
Short Delay - Forward Classical Conditioning
A
You present the NS, wait a fraction of a second or so, and then while the NS is still present, you present the UCS (delayed presentation of the UCS but the NS is still present when it is presented)
16
Q
Trace - Forward Classical Conditioning
A
Your present the NS and then remove it, you wait a fraction of a second or so and then present the UCS (delayed presentation of the UCS while the NS is no longer present)
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Simultaneous Conditioning/Simultaneous Temporal Pairing
A
Presenting the NS and the UCS at the same time
18
Q
Backward Conditioning/Backward Temporal Pairing
A
Presenting the UCS before the NS
Not very effective
19
Q
Classical Conditioning is the strongest when…
A
There are repeated pairings of NS and UCS
The inter-stimulus interval is short
20
Q
Inter-Stimulus Interval
A
The time between NS and UCS
21
Q
Extinction
A
A process in which the CS is presented repeatedly in the absence of the UCS, causing the CR to weaken and eventually disappear (the CR will go away)
22
Q
Spontaneous Recovery
A
The reappearance of a previously extinguished CR after a rest period and without new learning trials (have to acknowledge that the CR is no longer linked to the CS)
23
Q
Stimulus Generalization
A
Any stimuli similar to the initial CS will elicit a CR
Ex. Salivation may be elicited by a bell or a piano tone
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Q
Stimulus Discrimination
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A CR occurs in the presence of one stimulus but not in the present of others (other stimuli) (makes a distinction between the stimuli)
Ex. Salivation may not be elicited by a whistle
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Higher-Order Conditioning
Occurs when a neutral stimulus becomes a CS after being paired with an establish CS (not an UCS)
First order: UCS and UCS, Second order: CS and CR
Produces a CR that is weaker and extinguishes more rapidly than the original CR
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Classical Conditioning Applications
Ex. Acquiring fears
Ex. Overcoming fears/phobias
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John Watson
Founder of Behaviorism
Little Albert
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Watson: Little Albert
Conditioned to fear a white rat
Rat started as a neutral stimulus
Loud noise was the unconditioned stimulus
Fear of the white rat was the unconditioned response
Rat became conditioned response to the conditioned stimulus of the rat
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Mary Cover Jones
Deconditioning (idea: you can’t be anxious and relaxed at the same time)
Peter: Pairing the white rat with ice cream
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Therapies for Treating Fears/Phobias:
Exposure therapy
Systematic Desensitization
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Exposure therapy
Extinction
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Systematic Desensitization
Based on Mary Cover Jones’ deconditioning
Helping you relax in the presence of something that makes you anxious
Anxiety hierarchy
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Operant Conditioning
Making an association between response and consequence(s) (Behavior is controlled by its consequences)
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Important Figures of Operant Conditioning:
E.L. Thorndike
B.F. Skinner
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Important Figures of Classical Conditioning:
John Watson
Mary Cover Jones
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E.L. Thorndike
Law of Effect:
A response followed by a satisfying consequence (reward/positive consequence) is strengthened and more likely to be repeated
A response followed by an annoying consequence (negative) is weakened and less likely to be repeated
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B.F. Skinner
Extended many of Thorndike’s ideas
Instruments: Skinner box, mazes
Distinguishes between two types of behavior: Respondent, and Operant
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Skinner: Respondent Behavior
Stimulus elicits a response (stimulus, when present, will cause a response)
Focuses on the antecedents of behavior
Behavior seen in classical conditioning
What Pavlov calls an unconditioned response, Skinner calls a respondent behavior
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Skinner: Operant Behavior
Stimulus emits a response
The stimulus signals you should respond (but the response is a decision that can be shaped or altered by consequence)
Focuses on the consequences of behavior
Behavior studied in operant conditioning
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Basic Terminology of Operant Conditioning: Reinforcement
Increase in behavior
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Basic Terminology of Operant Conditioning: Positive Reinforcement
Increase in behavior by giving something pleasant (giving)
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Basic Terminology of Operant Conditioning: Negative Reinforcement
Increase in behavior by removing something unpleasant (removing)
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Basic Terminology of Operant Conditioning: Reinforcers
The stimulus or event that increases the frequency of a response (stimulus given or removed)
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Basic Terminology of Operant Conditioning: Primary Reinforcer(s)
Stimuli that an organism naturally finds reinforcing (things that satisfy a biological need)
Ex. Food and water
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Basic Terminology of Operant Conditioning: Secondary Reinforcer(s)
Stimulus that acquires reinforcing properties through their association with a primary reinforcer (or another conditioned reinforcer)
Conditioned/learned
Learned through classical conditioning
Ex. Money and praise (value developed over time - not innate)
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Basic Terminology of Operant Conditioning: Positive Reinforcer
The pleasant stimulus that is given
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Basic Terminology of Operant Conditioning: Negative Reinforcer
The aversive stimulus that is removed or avoided
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Basic Terminology of Operant Conditioning: Punishment
A response is weakened by an outcome that follows it (decrease in behavior)
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Basic Terminology of Operant Conditioning: Positive Punishment
Decrease in behavior by giving something unpleasant
Ex. Spanking
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Basic Terminology of Operant Conditioning: Negative Punishment
Decrease in behavior by removing something pleasant
Ex. Losing privileges
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Basic Principles for Effective Punishment
Consistency
Immediacy
Sufficient
Instructions
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Consistency
Should occur after every transgression
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Immediacy
Should be swift
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Sufficient
Should be enough to deter behavior
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Instructions
Should tell why; verbalizations help but are not necessary
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Additional Terminology of Operant Conditioning: Acquisition
Time is takes to make the association between response and consequence (Wait for behavior to occur then reinforce it)
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Additional Terminology of Operant Conditioning: Extinction
The weakening and eventual disappearance of a response because it is no longer reinforced
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Additional Terminology of Operant Conditioning: Spontaneous Recovery
An extinguished response returns without reinforcement (After a delay in presentation of stimulus)
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Additional Terminology of Operant Conditioning: Generalization
An operant response occurs to a new antecedent stimulus (or situation that is similar to the original one - stimulus generalization)
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Additional Terminology of Operant Conditioning: Discrimination
An operant response will occur to one antecedent stimulus but not to another
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Additional Terminology of Operant Conditioning: Discriminative Stimulus
A signal that indicates that responding now/to the stimulus will bring you reinforcement (indicates condition for reinforcement)
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Additional Terminology of Operant Conditioning: Premack's Principle
Reinforcing a less desired behavior with an opportunity to engage in a more desire one (“Grandma’s Rule”: after eating your veggies, you get dessert)
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Additional Terminology of Operant Conditioning: Escape Conditioning
Learning to end painful stimuli (painful stimulus is present)
Ex. The dog jumps over a barrier to escape from a painful electric shock
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Additional Terminology of Operant Conditioning: Avoidance Conditioning
Responding to a signal to avoid a painful stimulus (painful stimulus is never received)
Ex. The dog hears a signal (discriminative stimulus) which indicates a shockwave is coming (the dog jumps away before the shock is administered)
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Operant Conditioning - Acquisition: Shaping
Involves reinforcing successive approximations toward a final response
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Operant Conditioning - Acquisition: Schedule of Reinforcement
(Once a behavior is shaped, it must be maintained) Timetable for determining when a behavior should get reinforced
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Schedule of Reinforcement: Continuous
Reinforce every correct response (everytime the behavior is engaged in, it is reinforced)
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Schedule of Reinforcement: Partial/Intermittent
Reinforce only a fraction of correct responses (only a fraction of the time is the behavior reinforced)
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Schedule of Reinforcement: Partial/Intermittent: Fixed Ratio
Reinforce set # of correct responses
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Schedule of Reinforcement: Partial/Intermittent: Fixed Interval
Reinforce at set time intervals
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Schedule of Reinforcement: Partial/Intermittent: Variable Ratio
Reinforce unpredictable, changing # of correct responses (average responses)
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Schedule of Reinforcement: Partial/Intermittent: Variable Interval
Reinforce at unpredictable, changing time intervals (average time)
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Schedules and Behavior: Continuous Schedule Effect
Quickest learning
Quickest extinction
Quick/short term behavior change (can be easily forgotten)
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Schedules and Behavior: Partial Reinforcement Effect
Variable schedules make behaviors resistant to extinction
Superstitious behavior
Gambling
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Schedules and Behavior: Response Rate Effect
Stronger with variable schedules
Weaker response rate with fixed interval
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Cognitive Learning Theory Ideas
Between the stimulus and response is the organism’s cognitive representation of the world - O (stimulus, O, response)
Thought processes
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Stimulus-Response Psychology
Classical and Operant Conditioning
Proposes that learning involves the relatively automatic formation of bonds between a stimulus and a response
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Observational/Social Learning Theory (Social Learning Theory)
Albert Bandura
Learn by watching others
Children use adults and peers as models
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Modeling and Imitation
Biological bases for observational learning
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Mirror Neurons
Fire when we see someone else do something
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Processes of Observational Learning
Attention
Retention (memory)
Reproduction
Motivation
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Attention
We must concentrate on the model’s behavior; modeling
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Retention (memory)
We must keep that information in memory so that it can be recalled when needed
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Reproduction
We must be physically capable, of reproducing the model’s behavior; imitation
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Motivation
We must be motivated to display the behavior
Direct Reinforcement or Punishment
Vicarious Reinforcement or Punishment
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Extinction Burst
Behavior increases rapidly before it decreases during operant extinction
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Memory
The power to recall that which has been learned
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3 Stages of Memory
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval
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Encoding
Must be coded so that it can be communicated to the brain
Putting information into memory system (5 basic senses)
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Storage
Maintaining information in the memory system over time
Capacity: How much information?
Duration: How long?
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Retrieval
Locating information stored in memory and bringing it to conscious awareness
Search and recall process
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2 Processes of Retrieval
Recall
Recognition
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Recall
Retrieve from memory without much help
Fill in the blank; essay questions
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Recognition
Retrieval aided by clues
Multiple choice and matching questions
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Information Processing Approach
The oldest and most comprehensive of the models of memory
Many aspects of other models are incorporated in this theory (levels; multiple memory systems)
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Cognitive Process
A strategy used to transfer information to the next memory system to be processed further
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Selective Attention
Focus on information
Concentrate on information for transfer to working memory (STM)
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2 Types of Rehearsal
Maintenance/Rote Rehearsal
Elaborative Rehearsal
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Maintenance/Rote Rehearsal
Repeating information over as given
Memorization
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Elaborative Rehearsal
Give it meaning; repeat
Relate to something in the LTM
Processing
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3 Types of Memory
Sensory Memory
Short Term Memory
Long Term Memory
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Sensory Memory
Have a register for each sense
Register is like a file cabinet
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Short Term Memory
A storage place that holds information for a short period of time
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Working Memory
The part of memory system that allows us to mentally work with or manipulate information being held in STM
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Long Term Memory
Our vast library of more durable stored memories
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2 Types of Long Term Memory
Declarative Memory
Non-Declarative Memory
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Declarative Memory
Involves factual knowledge
Knowledge for facts, rules, and generalizations
Verbal
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2 Types of Declarative Memory
Semantic
Episodic
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Semantic
Generalized knowledge
Meaning
Dictionary type information
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Episodic
Memory for an event, as it happened
Personal events
Diary type information
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Non-Declarative Memory
Knowledge of acquired behaviors
Non-verbal
Motor skills and actions
How-to-do-something memory
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Sensory Memory: Encoding
Initial processing of information
Based on 5 basic senses
Icons - visual
Echoes - sound
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Sensory Memory: Storage
Capacity: Moderate quantity of information
Duration: Less than 1 to 2 seconds
Echoes linger longer than icons
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Sensory Memory: Retrieval
Once it is gone, it is gone
You don’t use it, you lose it (Decay/Fading Theory)
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Short Term Memory: Encoding
5 basic senses
Acoustic coding - sound
Visual coding - appearance
Acoustic coding dominates whereas visual coding seems to fade more quickly
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Short Term Memory: Storage
Capacity: Limited
Average adult can hold 7+/-2 items
5-9 items
Duration:
15-20 seconds without rehearsal
Transfer to LTM
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Short Term Memory: Retrieval
Decay theory
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To Increase Storage Capacity in Short Term Memory
Chunking
Automaticity
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Chunking
Larger, meaningful groupings of information
Can help increase the amount held in short-term memory
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Automaticity
Knowing information so well it becomes automatic
ABCs, multiplication tables
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Long Term Memory: Encoding
Encoding information into the long-term memory
Levels of processing/coding information (Surface/Deep)
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Long Term Memory - Encoding: Surface Coding
Coding based on the 5 basic senses
Structural: Looks like
Phonological: Sounds like
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Long Term Memory - Encoding: Deep Coding/Semantic Coding
Coding based on meaning (processing)
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Long Term Memory: Storage
Capacity: Virtually unlimited
Duration: Virtually unlimited
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Long Term Memory: Retrieval
Connection between storage and retrieval
Recall from memory
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Decay/Fading Theory
Use it or lose it
Especially likely in sensory registers and short-term memory
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Motivated Forgetting
Forget because it is too painful to remember
Repression (Freudian)
Psychogenic Amnesia
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Retroactive Inhibition/Interference
Replacement of old information with new information - blocks recall of old information (trying to recall old information)
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Proactive Inhibition/Interference
Lack of encoding of new information because of old information - old information blocks the processing of new information (trying to recall new information)
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Anterograde Amnesia
Loss of memory of events after brain damage
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Retrograde Amnesia
Loss of memory of events before brain damage
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Retrieval Theory
Failure to recall because of encoding failure
Didn’t put enough information into your system - retrieval cue failure
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Short Term vs. Long Term Research
Research on memory using the serial order effects
Supports a distinction between STM and LTM
Most likely to forget the middle of the list
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Methods to Improve Memory
Mnemonic strategies
Acronyms
Rhyming
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Mnemonic Strategies
Methods for organizing information in order to remember it
Usually use some type of imagery
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Method of Loci
Associate images of information with places you know (location)
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Context-Dependent Memory
Memories are helped or hindered by similarities and differences in the environmental context (external environment) (taking a victim back to the crime scene)
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State-Dependent Memory
How we were feeling when information was learned (two should match) (internal state)
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Distributed Practice
Break information down into smaller (many, mini) study sessions
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Massed Practice
Learning in a single long (or a few) study period(s)
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Thought
When you think about anything, you are manipulating one of the basic ingredients of thought - concepts
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Concepts
Categories of objects, events, or ideas with common properties (category used for grouping)
Allow us to make comparison to a category we already know
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Three Elements of a Concept
Concepts share a set of defining attributes (distinctive features)
Suggests we have prototypes/best representatives
They can be identified by their exemplars
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Prototypes
An image that captures the essence (most or all of the features) of the concept
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Exemplars
Our actual memories of the concept (episodic memory)
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Language
Consists of a system of symbols that society has agreed on their meaning and the rules for combining those symbols
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Two Basic Elements of Language
Symbols: Such as words
Rules: For combining those symbols (syntax)
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Four Components of Language
Phoneme, Morpheme, Syntax, Pragmatics
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Phoneme
Smallest unit of sound affecting speech
English uses about 40 phonemes
Ex. t, b, ph, th
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Morpheme
Smallest unit of language that has meaning
Prefixes, suffixes, and root words
Ex. ly, pre, shoe
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Syntax
Grammatical rules
Used to combine words into phrases and sentences
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Pragmatics
Social conventions of language (use of language in social settings)
Ex. Turn-taking, eye contact, whispering, etc.
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1st Year Language Development
Crying (0-2 months)
Cooing (2-5 months)
Babbling (6 months)
Around 10-12 months start to understand several words (speak first recognizable word)
Earliest words tend to be nouns (mama, daddy, car, cookie) for American babies
Around 12 months: holophrases, overextensions
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Cooing
long vowel sounds (2-5 months)
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Babbling
consonant and vowel combinations (6 months)
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Holophrases
Single word to communicate an entire sentence of meaning (holophrastic period)
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Overextensions
Use the meaning of a word in more places than it applies
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2nd Year Language Development
18-36 months
Vocabulary expands dramatically (learn several new words a day)
By age 2, they know 50-100 words
Start combining words together
Telegraphic speech
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Telegraphic Speech
First, short, basic sentences - 2 or 3 words
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3rd Year Language Development
Learning some basic rules of grammar (syntax)
Past tense, plurals being used correctly
By 5 years old, children have a basic understanding of the structure of their native language
Over-regularization
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Over-regularization
Using rules in places where they don’t apply
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Characteristics of Intelligence
The capacity to acquire knowledge
Abstract thinking and reasoning abilities
Problem-solving abilities that are adaptive for survival
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Cattell's Theory
Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence
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Fluid Intelligence
Innate, inherited reasoning abilities
Not influenced by experience, education, or environment
Mostly non-verbal
Ex. Capacity of working memory (+-7 items), speed of information processing, ability to control attention
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Crystallized Intelligence
Acquired abilities (learned)
Heavily influenced by experience, education, and environment
Mostly verbal
The ability to apply previously acquired knowledge to current problems
Ex. Vocabulary tests, information tests, mathematics
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Binet and Simon
Developed a set of age-graded intellectual tasks
Developed a 30-item test
Test was given to students who were candidates for the special classes
Test measured child’s mental age
Compared test scores (Mental Age) to Chronological Age
MA should equal CA
Used a difference score to see if students were candidates for special classes (MA-CA = -2 years or more)
167
Terman
Challenged the psychometrics of the Binet test
Looked at intelligence in terms of a ratio of mental age to chronological age
Intelligence Quotient (IQ): MA/CA x 100
Average IQ = 100
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Modern Calculation of IQ
Today’s IQ tests no longer use mental age
They use a person’s standing in a normative group of individual of the same age
Use the normal curve distribution
Standard score where the mean is 0 and the standard deviation is 1
Today average IQ is 100 and standard deviation is 15 (Wechsler)
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Characteristics of a Normal Curve
+/- 1 standard deviation = 68%
+/- 2 standard deviations = 95%
+/- 3 standard deviations = 99%
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Individual IQ Tests
one examiner to one examinee
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Group IQ Tests
Many examinees; paper and pencil
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Stanford-Binet Test
One single test, score based on comparison to others, age dependent
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Wechsler's Tests
WPPSI, WISC, WAIS
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WPPSI
Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (3-7)
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WISC
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (6-17)
Most widely used test for children age 6+ (not the Stanford-Binet)
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WAIS
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (16-late adulthood)
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