Exam 5 Flashcards
1
Q
What are sense receptors
A
Peripheral endings of sensory neurons that obtain information about the environment and are specific for the type of stimulus they detect
2
Q
What are chemoreceptros
A
Receptors that detect ions or molecules the smell and taste senses rely on these
3
Q
What are mechanoreceptors
A
They detect changes in pressure, position, or acceleration senses such as touch, stretch, hearing, and equilibrium
4
Q
What are electromagnetic receptors
A
They detect infrared radiation, visible light, or magnetic fields
5
Q
What are thermoreceptors
A
Detect hot or cold temperatures
6
Q
What are pain receptors
A
Detect severe heat and pressure and chemicals released by inflamed tissue
7
Q
What are the general senses
A
Visceral, touch, temperature, pain, and proprioception
8
Q
What are special senses
A
Taste, smell, hearing, equilibrium, and vision
9
Q
What are visceral sensations
A
Miscellaneous category of interior body sensations such as hunger, thirst, and hollow-organ fullness
10
Q
What are the receptors used by visceral sensations
A
Chemical and mechanical
11
Q
What are the receptors used by touch
A
Mechanical
12
Q
What type of receptors are used for sensing temperature
A
Thermal
13
Q
What type of receptors are used for sensing pain
A
Mechanical, chemical, or thermal
14
Q
What type of receptors are used for sensing proprioception
A
Mechanical
15
Q
What are the tactile senses
A
Touch which is the sensation of something in contact w/ the surface of the body and pressure which is the sensation of something pressing on the body surface
16
Q
What are the 2 types of temperature senses
A
Superficial w/ receptors in the skin that detect changes in skin temperature and central w/ receptors in the hypothalamus that monitors the temperature of the blood
17
Q
What are specific pain receptors
A
Nociceptors that are widely distributed inside and on the surface of the body that are simple nerve endings or more specialized structures to detect mechanical forces and temperature
18
Q
What is the main purpose of nociceptors
A
To protect the body from damage
19
Q
What are the parts of the pain process
A
Transduction, transmission, modulation, and perception
20
Q
What is transduction
A
Takes 1 energy source and converts it into a different one by taking a pain stimulus and turns it into a nerve impulse
21
Q
What is transmission
A
The nerve transmits the pain signal to the spinal cord
22
Q
What is modulation
A
The spinal cord takes an impulse and determines the priority of the pain then sends it to the brain
23
Q
What is perception
A
When an impulse has finally arrived to the brain and pain is perceived
24
Q
How does pain blockers such as an epidural work to reduce pain
A
It stops modulation and interrupts the perception process decreasing the pain after and during a procedure
25
What are the 3 different pain locations
Superficial, deep, and visceral
26
What are the 2 types of pain duration
Acute or chronic
27
What is proprioception
Awareness of where the limb is in space that utilizes stretch receptors in the skeletal muscle, tendons, ligaments, and joint capsules to keep the CNS informed
28
What type of receptors stimulate taste
Chemical
29
What type of receptors stimulate smell
Chemical
30
What type of receptors stimulate hearing
Mechanical
31
What type of receptors stimulate equilibrium
Mechanical
32
What type of receptors stimulate vision
Electromagnetic
33
What is taste
Gustatory sensation is detected by 3 different types of papillae (receptors) sweet, salty, and bitter
34
What is smell
Olfactory cells in the epithelial patches in the nasal passages contains receptors and odor molecules dissolve in mucus
35
What path does olfactory information take making it more acute than taste
Passes directly to the cerebral cortex by the olfactory bulbs
36
What is hearing
The mechanical receptors take vibrations of air molecules and convert it into nerve impulses that are interpreted by the brain as sound
37
Where is the middle ear
In the tympanic bulla
38
Where is the inner ear
W/in the middle ear
39
What is the pinna's role in hearing
It collects sound waves
40
What shape is the external auditory canal
L shaped
41
Where is the tympanic membrane
Separates the external ear from the middle ear
42
What is the tympanic membrane
The eardrum is a paper thin connective tissue membrane that stretches tightly across the opening btw the external auditory canal and the middle ear cavity
43
Can the tympanic membrane grow back if it ruptures
Yes
44
What is the middle ear
The eustachian tube that is filled w/ air that contains 3 ossicles that are caused to vibrate by the eardrum transmitting to the cochlea and 2 muscles
45
What are the 3 ossicles in the middle ear
Malleus (hammer), incus (anvil), and stapes (stirrup)
46
Where is the malleus
The outermost bone that is attached to tympanic membrane
47
Where is the incus
The middle bone in the middle ear
48
Where is the stapes
Attached to the membrane covering the oval window of cochlea
49
What are the muscles in the middle ear
The tensor tympani and stapedius
50
What are the functions of the muscles in the middle ear
They are involuntary muscles that aid in protecting the cochlea by tensing against the ear drum to reduce intensity of soundwaves to prevent hearing loss
51
What are the functions in the inner ear
Hearing and equilibrium
52
What is the cochlea
A snail shell shaped spiral cavity in the temporal bone
53
What is the Organ of Corti
A portion of a specific nerve ending that is filled w/ endolymph and contains hair cells that transduces sound to send to brain
54
What things are all found in the Organ of Corti
Endolymph, hair cells, supporting cells, and tectorial membrane
55
What are the steps of hearing
Sound wave vibrations cause the tympanic membrane and ossicles in the middle ear to vibrate, perilymph around the cochlear duct vibrates, cochlear duct moves, tectorial membrane and hair cells of the Organ of Corti rub against each other, nerve impulses are generated, and impulses travel to the brain and are interpreted as sound
56
What is equilibrium
Maintaining balance by keeping track of the head's position and movements using the vestibule and semicircular canals
57
What is the vestibule
Located btw cochlea and semicircular canals that has 2 saclike spaces the utricle and saccule also has the macula
58
What is the macula
Sensory epithelium that lines the utricle and saccule and contains hair cells that are covered by gelatinous matrix and contains otoliths
59
What is the function of the macula
Gravity causes otoliths and gelatinous matrix to put constant pressure on the sensory hairs causing them to bend this generates a nerve impulse that gives the brain info about the position of the head
60
What are the semicircular canals
Located on the other side of the vestibule from the cochlea containing fluid filled membranous tubes that are arranged in 3 planes at right angles to each other giving 3D axis
61
What is the ampulla
The enlarged bulb area near the utricle end of each semicircular canal
62
What is the crista ampullaris
A receptor similar to macula that houses the cupula
63
What is the cupula
A cone shaped area of supporting cells and hair cells w/ their processes sticking up into gelatinous structure
64
What are the steps of sensing motion
The head moves, fluid movement lags in one plane of semicircular canals, fluid movement pulls on cupula, hairs are bent, nerve impulse is generated, and brain receives info about motion of the head
65
What are the three layers of the eyeball
Outer fibrous layer (cornea and sclera), middle vascular layer (choroid, iris, and ciliary body), and inner nervous layer (retina)
66
What is the cornea
It is transparent to admit light to the interior of the eye, has an orderly arrangement of collagen fibers, and only contains receptors
67
What is the sclera
The white of the eye
68
What is the limbus
The junction of the cornea and sclera
69
What is the choroid
Lies btw sclera and retina, consists mainly of pigment and blood vessels, and contains the tapetum lucidum a highly reflective area in the rear of the eye
70
What is the iris
The pigmented smooth muscular diaphragm that controls the amount of light that enters the posterior part of the eye and contains the pupil which is the opening in the center of iris
71
What is the ciliary body
A ring shaped structure behind the iris that contains tiny muscles that adjust the shape of the lens to allow near and far vision
72
What is the fundus
The caudal interior surface of the eye that contains the retina and ophthlamic disc
73
What is the retina
The neuro component of the fundus that contains rods and cones
74
What are the different layers of the retina
Pigment, photoreceptor, bipolar cell, ganglion cell, and nerve fibers
75
What is the optic disc
The blind spot of the eye where nerve fibers on inside of the retina converge and leave the eye to form the optic nerve
76
What are photoreceptor cells
Neurons w/ dendrites modified into sensory receptors for light broken up into rods and cones
77
What are rods
Photoreceptors that can't distinguish colors and do not provide sharp vision, are sensitive to dim light, better at detecting motion than cones, most abundant in the periphery of the retina, and they have several hundred stacked membranous disks that contain the pigment rhodopsin
78
What are cones
Photoreceptors that see color, they produce sharp images but require bright light, cones are the most dense in an area in the back of the eye called the fovea, there are 3 types of cones red, green, or blue
79
What type of cones do dogs have
Blue and yellow
80
What is the lens
A soft translucent layers of fibers that are elastic and biconvex this helps focus a clear image on the retina through the accommodation process
81
What can change the shape of the lens
The ciliary muscles
82
What is lenticular sclerosis
A normal decrease in elasticity of the lens that occurs w/ age and causes hazy looks starting around 7-9 years old
83
What are cataracts
Eye disease that blocks light from the retina causing blindness, a glassy marble appearance, retina degeneration leading to leaking of the eye proteins, and glucoma
84
What are the 2 compartments of the eye
The aqueous chamber and the vitreous body
85
What is the aqueous chamber
Located in front of the lens, subdivided into the anterior and posterior chambers by the iris, and contains the clear water fluid that is the aqueous humor
86
What is the path of the aqueous humor
It is produced in the posterior chamber by the ciliary body and drained in the anterior chamber by the Canal of Schlemm
87
What is a glaucoma
Can present as acute which looks like a normal eye due to a rapid increase in pressure or chronic which is a gradual increase in pressure leading to a white swollen eye
88
What is the vitreous compartment
Contains clear gelatinous fluid called the vitreous humor filling the whole back of the eye behind the lens and ciliary body
89
What is the conjunctiva
The thin, moist, transparent membrane that covers the front portion of the eyeball (bulbar conjunctiva) and lines the interior surfaces of the eyelids (palpebral conjunctiva)
90
What is the conjunctival sac
Space btw bulbar and palpebral portions of the conjunctiva
91
What are eyelids
Upper and lower folds of skin lined by conjunctiva
92
What are the lateral and medial canthus
Corners where the eyelids come together and contains extra CT that makes the eyelid an almond shape
93
What are tarsal/meibomian glands
Their tiny openings that are found along the eyelid margin they produce a waxy substance to prevent tears from overflowing onto the face
94
What is the third eyelid
Nictitating membrane that is a T shaped plate of cartilage covered by conjunctiva located medially btw the eyelids and the eyeball and contains lymph nodules and accessory lacrimal gland on the ocular surface
95
What is horner's syndrome
Globe of eye gets sunken back due to disfunction of the sympathetic nerves of the eye
96
What is the lacriminal apparatus
Structures that produce and secrete tears and train tears away from the surface of the eye
97
What is the tear drainage system
Lacrimal puncta, lacriminal sacs, and nasolacrimal duct
98
What are tears
Liquid film that moistens and protects the surface of the eye
99
What do tears from the inner mucous layer contain
Antibacterial substances
100
Where are tears produced in the middle tear layer
From the lacrimal glands and accessory lacrimal glands of the third eyelid to keep the cornea moist
101
What is the purpose of the outer oily layer
Produced from tarsal/meibomian glands to reduce evaporation of underlying tear layer preventing tears from flowing over the lid margin
102
What are the eye muscles
Small skeletal muscles that attach to the sclera capable of wide range of movements
103
What are the 3 different hormone groups
Peptide, steroid, and monoamine
104
What are peptide hormones
Hydrophilic chains of AA that have receptors located on cell membranes of target cells
105
What are steroid hormones
Synthesized from cholesterol they are hydrophobic so they attach to transport proteins and their receptors are located w/in the cell
106
What are monoamine hormones
Derived from AA and retain an amine group they have receptors for catecholamines located on cell membranes and receptors for thyroid hormones located in the nucleus
107
What is negative feedback
Activity decreased by rising levels of hormone
108
What is positive feedback
Activity increased by falling levels of hormone
109
What is the hypothalmus
Part of the diencephalon of the brain it controls activities of the pituitary gland and uses a portal system of blood vessels linking to the anterior portion of pituitary gland
110
How does the hypothalamus trigger the release of different hormones in the anterior pituitary hormone
Modified neurons secrete releasing and inhibiting factors into portal blood vessels each specific for a particular hormone
111
What hormones are produced in the hypothalamus and stored in the posterior pituitary
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin
112
What is another word for the anterior pituitary
Adenohypophysis
113
What is another name for the posterior pituitary
Neurohypophysis
114
What are the hormones produced by the anterior pituitary
Growth hormone, prolactin, thyroid stimulating hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone, FSH, LH, and melanocyte stimulating hormone
115
What is growth hormone
Somatotropin promotes body growth in young animals to regulate metabolism of proteins, lipids, and CHO in all body cells encouraging anabolism of proteins, causing release of lipids in storage and their catabolism, and discourages cells from using CHO
116
What is prolactin
Helps trigger/maintain lactation production and release continues as long as teat continues to be stimulated by nursing or milking
117
What occurs w/o stimulation from prolactin
Milk production stops and mammary gland shrinks back to a non lactating size
118
What is TSH
Thyrotropic hormone stimulates growth and development of thyroid gland causing it to produce its hormones its secretion is regulated by negative feedback from the thyroid by interacting among hypothalamus, anterior pituitary, and thyroid glands
119
What is ACTH
Stimulates growth and development of adrenal cortex and release of some of its hormones, production is regulated by negative feedback from hormones of the adrenal cortex, and can be released quickly as result of stress
120
What is melanocyte stimulating hormone
Associated w/ control of color changes in pigment cells of reptiles, fish, and amphibians
121
What is ADH
Vasopressin increases blood pressure by conserving blood volume is released when hypothalamus detects dehydration producing more concentrated urine
122
What does ADH deficiency cause
Diabetes insipidus leading to polyuria and polydipsia
123
What is the thyroid gland
Bilobed on either side of the larynx connected by the isthmus it produces thyroid hormone and calcitonin
124
What are the effects of thyroid hormone
Regulates metabolic rate of all body's cells w/ a calorigenic effect increasing metabolism to generate body heat allowing animals to maintain constant internal body temp and affects metabolism of proteins, CHO, and lipids affecting anabolism of synthesis of proteins, maintaining homeostasis of blood glucose levels, and encourages catabolism of lipids
125
What is calcitonin
Produced by C cells located btw thyroid follicles lowering blood calcium levels resulting in excess calcium to be deposited in bones and exerts opposite effect of parathyroid hormone
126
What is the common reasoning for thyroid hormone deficiency
Iodine deficiency
127
What is the result of thyroid hormone deficiency
Even tho T3&T4 arent able to be produced TSH is still being released causing the thyroid gland enlarges causing a goiter this can also be caused by hyperthyroidism
128
What are common signs of hypothyroidism in dogs and cats
Lack of activity, hair loss, dry and dull hair, cold sensitivity, and anemia treated with levothyroxine
129
What are the common signs of hyperthyroidism in dogs and cats
Fatigue, weight loss, hunger, nervousness, and sensitivity to heat is treated w/ radiation (thiouracil, thiourea, sulfonamides, and chlorpromazine)
130
What is parathyroid hormone
Parathormone, produced by parathyroid glands, enhances cacium and phosphate absorption from the intestines by increasing active form of Vit D, and increases blood calcium causing kidneys to retain calcium, causes intestines to absorb calcium from food, and stimulates osteoclasts
131
What does primary hyperparathyroidism result in
Hypercalcemia
132
What are the produced in the adrenal cortex
Glucocorticoids (cause general hyperglycemic, help maintain BP, and help body resist effects of stress), mineralocorticoids (regulate levels of electrolytes), and sex hormones
133
What is adrenal disease
Hyperadrenocorticism (cushing's syndrome) and hypoadrenocorticism (addison's disease)
134
What is cushing's syndrome
Excessive cortisol production it is pituitary dependent primarily occurs due to adrenocortical tumors symptoms consist of PU, PD, pot bellied appearance, think skin, alopecia, muscle wasting, and results in insulin resistance
135
What is addison's disease
The result of atrophy or destruction of all of the layers of the adrenal cortex referred to as the great pretender because it mimics other disease symptoms include decreased cortisol +/- aldosterone production, hyponatremia, and hyperkalemia female standard poodles are the poster child after age 7
136
What is the adrenal medulla
The inner gland that resembles nervous tissue it produces 2 hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine that are controlled by the sympathetic portion of ANS
137
What are pancreatic islets
Islets of langerhans are alpha (glucagon), beta (insulin), delta (somatostatin)
138
What does insulin do
Lowers blood glucose levels causing glucose, AA, and FA in the blood to be absorbed into body cells
139
What does glucagon do
Raises blood glucose levels stimulating liver cells to convert glycogen to glucose and stimulating glycogenesis
140
What are the 2 types of diabetes mellitus
Type 1 insulin insufficiency at pancreas (dogs) and type 2insulin resistance at site of tissues (cat)
141
What are clinical signs of diabetes mellitus
Hyperglycemia, glucosuria, PU/PD, polyphagia, and weight loss
142
What are complications of pancreatic disease
Cataracts, retinopathy, neuropathy, EPI, hepatic lipidosis, glomerulonephropathy, and increased risk of bacterial infections
143
What is erythropoietin
Stimulated in the kidneys by hypoxia increasing production of RBCs resulting in increased blood oxygen level slows down secretion
144
What does erythropoietin deficiency result in
Nonregenerative anemia of chronic kidney disease
145
What is gastrin
Hormone produced by cells in stomach wall to act upon the stomach wall and secretion stimulated by presence of food results in secretion of hydrochloric acid and digestive enzymes increasing gastric motility
146
What triggers the SI to secrete secretin and CCK
The presence of chyme in duodenum
147
What is the function of secretin
Stimulates pancreas to secrete fluid to neutralize acidic chyme
148
What is the function of cholecystokinin
Stimulates pancreas to release digestive enzymes
149
What are the effects of both secretin and CCK
Slows movement of chyme and stimulates gallbladder to send bile to SI
150
What is the thymus
An important part of animal's cell mediated immunity is a larger organ in young animals that atrophies later in life it produces thymosin and thymopoietin
151
What are the 3 functions of prostaglandins
Inflammation, pain/fever, and reproduction
152
Where are prostaglandins produced
Skin, intestine, brain, kidneys, lungs, repro organs, and eyes
153
What are prostaglandins
Tissue hormones that are derived from unsaturated FA
