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Animal Physiology > Exam I > Flashcards

Exam I Flashcards

1
Q

physiology

A

fundamental understanding of function

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2
Q

animal

A

multicellular heterotroph without a cell wall

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3
Q

what are the two questions of physiology?

A

-What is the mechanism for which a function works?
-How do these mechanisms come to be?

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4
Q

natural selection

A

increase in gene frequency that increases fitness

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5
Q

Darwin’s Postulates (5)

A
  1. All organisms show variation
  2. All species produce more offspring than can survive
  3. Individuals with favorable traits will tend to survive and reproduce, passing favorable traits to offspring
  4. Result is a change toward favorable traits in the population
  5. Over time, this leads to organisms becoming adapted to their environment
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6
Q

r-selection

A

lots of progeny with less resources; low survivorship

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7
Q

k-selection

A

less progeny with more resources; higher survivorship

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8
Q

adaptive significance

A

why is the trait an asset? why does natural selection favor the evolution of a trait?

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9
Q

adaptation

A

physiological mechanism, long-term, not easily reversible

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10
Q

acclimatization

A

short-term adjustment to physiology from natural environment

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11
Q

acclimation

A

short-term adjustment to physiology from lab setting

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12
Q

central questions of physiology (3)

A
  1. How does it work?
  2. What is it for?
  3. How is it shaped?
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13
Q

mechanism

A

the components of the actual, living animals and the interactions among those components that enable the animals to perform as they do

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14
Q

homeostasis

A

organisms work to maintain a constant internal environment

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15
Q

negative feedback loop

A

effective in maintaining homeostasis
ex: blood glucose levels

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16
Q

positive feedback loop

A

creates a snowball effect
ex: expelling fetus from the uterus during childbirth

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17
Q

conformity

A

if an animal permits internal and external environments to be equal

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18
Q

regularity

A

an animal maintains internal constancy in the face of external variability

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19
Q

Claude Bernard observed these patterns (2):

A
  1. Atoms are constantly being exchanged in the environment
  2. Most cells experience a relatively constant environment (with respect to glucose concentration)
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20
Q

scaling

A

-the study of physiological and morphological traits in relation to body size
-related species of large and small size can be viewed as scaled up or scaled down versions of their type

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21
Q

body size

A

-the physiological properties of related animal species typically scale in mathematically consistent ways with their body sizes
-nonproportional, therefore allometric

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22
Q

bone strength

A

is dependent on cross-sectional surface area

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23
Q

bird wings +lift

A

increased surface area creates more lift

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24
Q

what was learned from the LSD on elephants experiment?

A

-Because they based their dosage on body weight alone, the elephant died
-LSD works in the brain, so they needed to consider both body size and body weight

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25
Q

a shrew expends ___% of total body energy every hour

A

1%

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26
Q

an elephant expends ___% of total body energy every ____ days

A

1%, 5 days

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27
Q

allometry

A

the study of the proportion of body size

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28
Q

the sum of anabolic and catabolic reactions

A

the rate at which an organism consumes energy

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29
Q

MO2

A

mL O2/hr

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30
Q

VO2

A
  • mL O2/g*hr
    -metabolic rate
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31
Q

Q

A

cardiac output (mL/min)

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32
Q

equation for cardiac output

A

Q=HR*SV

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33
Q

HR

A

heart rate

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34
Q

SV

A

stroke volume

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35
Q

annotating

A

determining the role of genes

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36
Q

what is unique about icefish blood?

A

-They do not produce hemoglobin; they lack heme groups
-Produce a pseudogene (alpha) and no beta

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37
Q

How is Antarctic water advantageous to icefish survival?

A

-Very cold water is highly oxygen-saturated
-The coldness plays a role in their survival because it tends to depress their metabolic needs for O2 and it tends to make O2 particularly soluble in oceanwater and their body fluids

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38
Q

What is the evolutionary pattern involving the deletion of globin genes?

A

In all icefish species, they exhibit the same deletions, meaning they were inherited from the same ancestor

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39
Q

role of hemoglobin in muscles

A

increases the rate at which O2 diffuses into the cells and sometimes acts as an internal storage unit of O2 for the cells

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40
Q

myoglobin

A

muscle hemoglobin

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41
Q

the loss of myoglobin in some icefish species indicates that

A

-the myoglobin free icefishes evolved independently more than once
-the diversion of myoglobin and hemoglobin are completely different

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42
Q

compared to with related red-blooded fish, ice fish…

A

have much larger hearts and circulate their blood at much higher levels

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43
Q

parsimony

A

Occam’s razor, the simplest answer is usually the right answer

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44
Q

antifreeze glycoproteins

A

-keeps blood from freezing
-evidence suggests that these glycoproteins likely evolved before icefish appeared

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45
Q

colligative properties

A

-examples: NaCl and glucose
-properties of solutions that depend on the number of particles in the solution but not the nature of the chemical species

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46
Q

non-colligative properties

A

-glycoproteins bind to ice crystals to prevent further growth
-the composition and property of the solvent are uniform

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47
Q

genomics

A

the study of genomes in organisms

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48
Q

gene family

A

all of the genes in a family share distinctive DNA base sequences

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49
Q

what three things were learned from purple sea urchin gene family analysis?

A

-unusual cellular communication system
-unusually elaborate immune and detoxification systems (may explain their longevity)
-repeated genes from other vertebrates suggests a common ancestor

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50
Q

trypsinogen

A

inactive protease of trypsin; found in the pancreas

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51
Q

transcriptomics

A

what genes are being upregulated/downregulated

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52
Q

DNA microarrays

A

the basis for the study of gene transcription

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53
Q

control group in DNA microarrays

A

red, indicates downregulated genes

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54
Q

experimental group in DNA microarrays

A

green, indicates upregulated genes

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55
Q

gene knockouts

A

manipulation of certain functional genes

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56
Q

gene knockdown

A

introduces an interfering RNA strand, significantly decreases expression

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57
Q

protostomes

A

-“first mouth”
-mollusks, annelids, arthropods
-most animals are protosomes

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58
Q

deuterostomes

A

-“second opening”
-echinoderms, chordates

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59
Q

protostomes cleavage

A

spiral and determinate

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60
Q

protostomes coelom formation

A

-Schizocoelous: solid masses of mesoderm split to form the coelom

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61
Q

protostomes fate of blastopore

A

mouth develops from blastopore

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62
Q

deuterostomes cleavage

A

radial and indeterminate

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63
Q

deuterostomes coelom formation

A

-enterocoelous: fold of archenteron form coelom

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64
Q

deuterostomes fate of blastopore

A

anus develops from blastopore

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65
Q

transport of solutes

A

essential for maintaining homeostasis

66
Q

simple diffusion

A

-most straightforward form of passive solute transport
-high concentration –> low concentration
-effective for short distances, doesn’t require energy

67
Q

rate of diffusion

A

how fast something moves from high to low concentration

68
Q

Fick equation

A

J=D(C1-C2/x)

69
Q

J

A

rate of diffusion

70
Q

C1&C2

A

concentrations

71
Q

X

A

distance between concentrations

72
Q

D

A

diffusion factor (proportionality factor)

73
Q

concentration gradient

A

-(C1-C2/x)
-how much the concentration changes per unit of distance

74
Q

boundary layer

A

decreases the rate of diffusion, increases x

75
Q

bulk solution

A

-the solution that is away from contact with a membrane
-the concentrations of positive and negative charges is always equal
-the net charge of any bulk solution is 0

76
Q

electrical gradient

A

the difference in voltage between two sides; affects the diffusion of all charged solutes

77
Q

Nerst equation

A

directly compares concentration gradients and electrical gradients to determine which is stronger

78
Q

a typical cell membrane is ____ charged on the outside and ___ charged on the inside

A

positively, negatively

79
Q

Cl- diffusion in active transport

A

-at or near electrochemical equilibrium across the cell membrane
-usually more concentrated outside the cell

80
Q

Na+ diffusion in active transport

A

-more concentrated on the outside of the cell
-very far from electrochemical equilibrium across a cell membrane and has a great tendency to diffuse from the extracellular fluid into the cell

81
Q

K+ diffusion in active transport

A

not at chemical equilibrium across the cell membrane

82
Q

faciliatated diffusion

A

the spontaneous passive transport of molecules/ions across a biological membrane via specific transmembrane integral proteins

83
Q

factors of facilitated diffusion

A
  1. it always occurs in the direction of electrochemical equilibrium
  2. solutes transported by this mechanism move across membranes much faster than they could if they did not associate it with transporter proteins
  3. the mechanism requires solutes to bind reversibly with binding sites on transporter proteins
84
Q

facilitated diffusion example

A

-glucose transport from blood –> cells
-insulin controls/activates facilitated diffusion

85
Q

active transport

A

-have the ability to carry material in the direction opposing equilibrium
-ATP is required

86
Q

transporter/carrier

A

membrane protein that mediates active or passive transport across the membrane by binding noncovalently and reversibly with solute

87
Q

ligands

A

solutes that bind noncovalently and reversibly with a transporter protein

88
Q

Na+-K+ pump

A

-transports three Na+ ions out of the cell and two K+ ions in
-helps to create a difference in charge across the cell membrane
-found in the basolateral membrane of all epithelial cells

89
Q

Na+-K+-ATPase

A

an enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of ATP as well as serving as a transporter

90
Q

Na+-K+-ATPase pumping cycle step 1

A
  1. three intracellular Na+ binding sites have a high affinity for Na+ when the ATPase is in its dephosphorylated state
91
Q

Na+-K+-ATPase pumping cycle step 2

A

hydrolysis of ATP phosphorylates the molecule, decreasing the Na+ affinity of the intracellular binding sites. The released Na+ ions disappear into an “occluded” state inside the protein. Two extracellular K+ binding sites develop high K+ binding affinity

92
Q

Na+-K+-ATPase pumping cycle step 3

A

the phosphorylated molecule releases Na+ into the extracellular fluid. Two K+ bind to the K+ binding sites

93
Q

Na+-K+-ATPase pumping cycle step 4

A

Dephosphorylation causes the K+ to be released into an “occluded” (out of communication) state inside the protein

94
Q

Na+-K+-ATPase pumping cycle step 5

A

K+ is released inside the cell. The Na+-binding sites regain high affinity for Na+

95
Q

primary active transport

A

-active transport that draws energy immediately from the hydrolysis of ATP
-transporter protein=ATPase

96
Q

secondary active transport

A

-draws energy from an electrochemical gradient
-ATP is required, but is not the direct source of energy

97
Q

cotransporter

A

-protein that moves 2 solutes in one direction

98
Q

how do hummingbirds have a diet that consists of nearly all glucose?

A

they can handle these high levels of glucose because they have an extremely high cotransporter activity

99
Q

epithelial cell glucose transport mechanism

A

-glucose enters the epithelial cell across the apical membrane by secondary active transport
-leaves the basolateral membrane by facilitated diffusion mediated by a glucose-transporter protein

100
Q

how do freshwater fishes replenish Na+ and Cl- ions?

A

-Na+ pumping mechanism secretes H+ into the water for Na+
-Cl- pumping mechanism secretes HCO3- in exchange for Cl-
-employ active waste ions to keep the active uptake mechanisms of Na+ and Cl-

101
Q

a lack of compounds is

A

undernourished

102
Q

a lack of nutrients is

A

malnourished

103
Q

essential nutrients

A

necessary for enzyme production

104
Q

proteins

A

~50% of all organic matter in animals
-used in AA production, antibodies, venom

105
Q

nutrition

A

the study of chemical compounds that compose the bodies of animals and how they are able to synthesize those chemical compounds

106
Q

standard amino acids

A

22 in total, animals can produce them on their own

107
Q

essential amino acids

A

animal cannot produce on their own

108
Q

lipids

A

membrane composition, energy storage, waterproofing, steroids, insulation (padding)

109
Q

saturated fatty acid

A

all bonds between carbons are single bonds

110
Q

unsaturated fatty acid

A

one or more bonds between carbon atoms are double

111
Q

carbohydrates

A

structural support, energy storage (glycogen), transfer of energy (glucose)

112
Q

GULO

A

a gene that catalyzes the last step in the ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) biosynthetic pathway

113
Q

GULOP

A

-a pseudogene with a frameshift mutation at codon 346
-vitamin c deficiency was not a problem, so the GULO gene was lost
-the GULOP gene is homologous to the GULO gene
-this is why we can get scurvy

114
Q

feeding: behavior

A

-animals change their behavior to fulfill a need
-ex: spiders and specific flies

115
Q

feeding: structural

A

-anatomical adaptation
-ex: bird bills

116
Q

snail radula

A

tongue-like apparatus, small grooves on the surface that are made of chitin

117
Q

cone snail

A

-modified radula, harpoon shape
-inject conotoxin into victims

118
Q

what does conotoxin do?

A

it inhibits the binding of acetylcholine, replacing it with alpha-conotoxin, and paralyzing the victim

119
Q

zooxanthelle

A

-what gives coral color, resides in the gastrodermis
-Coral bleaching is a result of lack of zooxanthelle

120
Q

riftia

A

-hydrothermal vent worms
-contains sulfur oxidizing bacteria

121
Q

trophosome

A

-sulfur-oxidizing bacteria (food source)
-participates in the redox reaction: SO4—->H2S

122
Q

heterotrophic microbes

A

source is large C molecules, gut microbiome, anaerobic

123
Q

probiotics

A

living bacteria that reside in the gut

124
Q

Artiodactyla

A

-ruminants, fore-gut fermenters (esophagus and stomach)
-6 families
-even toed

125
Q

Perissodactyla

A

-odd-toed
-hind-gut fermenters
-3 families

126
Q

rumen

A

-very efficient; microbes colonize the materials and ferment
-anaerobic
-synthesize amino acids
-nitrogenous waste can be used to break down materials further

127
Q

reticulum

A

honeycomb shape, removes H2O

128
Q

abomasum

A

closely resembles the ‘true stomach’

129
Q

hindgut fermenters

A

-less efficient
-break down cellulose in either the cecum or the colon
-they don’t break down a lot of vitamins/AA, so they have to rely more on consumption

130
Q

day pellets vs. soft pellets

A

-cellulose+non digestible materials
-derives from cecum; reingested to get nutrients

131
Q

termite digestion

A

-diet is entirely comprised of cellulose
-flagellates, which make up about 1/3 of their body weight, produce cellulase

132
Q

intraluminal enzymes

A

occurs inside the gut, mixes with chyme, inactive form/enzyme (zymogen)

133
Q

mucous cells secrete

A

mucous

134
Q

chief cells secrete

A

pepsinogen

135
Q

parietal cells secrete

A

HCl

136
Q

intracellular digestion

A

food particles are taken into specialized cells prior to digestion, digestion occurs within the cells

137
Q

extracellular digestion

A

digestion in an extracellular body cavity, such as the lumen of the stomach or the small intestine

138
Q

gut length in carnivores

A

shorter because meat is easier to break down

139
Q

gut length in herbivores

A

longer because cellulose is difficult to break down

140
Q

nutritional genomes

A

alteration of genomes/enzymes dependent on diet

141
Q

1st law of thermodynamics

A

conservation of energy, efficiency

142
Q

2nd law of thermodynamics

A

law of entropy; measure of disorder; increased entropy=increased energy

143
Q

energy

A

the capacity to perform physical work

144
Q

physical work

A

decrease in entropy, increase in order

145
Q

what are the forms of high grade energy?

A

chemical, electrical and mechanical

146
Q

what are the forms of kinetic energy?

A

mechanical and heat

147
Q

what is considered low grade energy?

A

heat energy

148
Q

efficiency of energy transformation equation

A

output (usable) energy/ input of energy

149
Q

energy is used for

A
  1. biosynthesis
  2. maintenance
  3. external work
150
Q

metabolic rate

A

the rate at which an organism consumes energy, chemical energy being converted to work
*one of the most important physiological indicators

151
Q

calorimetry

A

-the most direct way to measure MR
-the amount of water needed to melt 1 gram of water

152
Q

respiratory quotient equation

A

CO2 produced/O2 consumed

153
Q

closed respirometry

A

-rate of movement=rate of O2 consumption
-lack of CO2 affects results/metabolism
-only works with small animals

154
Q

open respirometry

A

-airflow in and out
-more precise data
-more realistic environment
-second to second readings

155
Q

conductance

A

the inverse of insulation, how easily heat is lost to the environment

156
Q

endotherm

A

generates own body heat

157
Q

ectotherm

A

body heat is generated from external environment

158
Q

specific dynamic action (SDA)

A

-metabolic rate can change as a result of ingesting a meal
-~25% of protein meal can be lost to SDA; this could be an expense of nitrogenous waste
-diet-induced thermogenesis (meat sweats lol)

159
Q

basal metabolic rate (BMR)

A

-environmental factors to determine the lowest metabolic rate; resting rate
-endotherms

160
Q

standard metabolic rate (SMR)

A

-at a specified temperature
-ectotherms

161
Q

VO2 max

A

-the highest metabolic rate
-can be around 10x the amount of BMR

Animal Physiology (2 decks)

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