Exam I Flashcards
1
Q
Qualitative studies:
A
Explore subjective experiences, using narrative data
phenomenology, ethnography, grounded theory, case study, historical
2
Q
Quantitative studies:
A
Test hypotheses Uses numeric (statistical) data
(experimental, non-experimental)
3
Q
What are the 5 steps of the quantitative research process:
A
- Concept phase
- Design and planning
- The empirical phase
- The analytic phase
- The dissemination phase
4
Q
What are the steps of the qualitative research process(4):
A
Conceptualizing and planning
Conducting the study
Data saturation
Disseminating findings
5
Q
What does the PICOT format stand for?
A
P- population
I- intervention or exposure (independent variable)
C- comparison or control ( ex- placebo, gold standard)
O- outcome (dependent variable)
T- time frame
6
Q
What does the term construct refer to when used by a researcher?
A
An abstraction inferred from situations or behaviors. It is not a direct measurement, it is vague and ambiguous and needs to be defined.
7
Q
What term describes a researcher’s expectations or predictions about relationships among study variables?
A
Hypothesis
8
Q
What is the difference between a conceptual definition and a operational definition?
A
A conceptual definition is the theoretical meaning of concepts under study (textbook meaning). The operational definition of a concept specifies how researchers will measure the concept.
9
Q
How does a moderator variable affect the the relationship between independent and dependent variables ?
A
Affects the strength or direction of a relationship between the independent and dependent variables
10
Q
What are two aspects required for a fully developed research question?
A
Defined population
Situation of interest
11
Q
What are statistics and research the basis of?
A
Evidence based practice
12
Q
What is characteristic of an experimental study and what type of approach method is it?
A
It is a quantitative method in which an intervention is introduced.
13
Q
During which phase of the quantitative research process is the intervention introduced and observation/data collection started?
A
Empirical phase
14
Q
During which phase of the quantitative research process are results shared with colleagues?
A
Dissemination phase
15
Q
What determines the sample size of a qualitative study?
A
Data saturation
16
Q
What is a simple hypothesis?
A
A predicted relationship between one independent variable and one dependent variable.
17
Q
What is a complex hypothesis?
A
Statement of a predicted relationship between two or more independent and/or two or more dependent variables
18
Q
What is a directional hypothesis?
A
Specifies not only the existence but also the expected direction of the relationship between variables. Ex: greater than, less than
19
Q
What is a nondirectional hypothesis?
A
Predicts the existence of a relationship but not the direction of the relationship
20
Q
What does a null hypothesis state?
A
States that there is no relationship between the variables
21
Q
What is the alternative/research hypothesis?
A
The opposite of the null hypothesis, consists of a statement about the expected relationship between the variables
22
Q
What outlines the basis for regulations affecting research by the US government?
A
The Belmont Report
23
Q
What 3 ethical principles were outlined in the Belmont report?
A
- Justice
- Beneficence
- Respect for human diginity
24
Q
How did the Nuremberg code established in the 1940’s strive to do and what did its existence come out of?
A
Strives to protect participants’ rights to participate voluntarily, right to withdraw, and protect from suffering/injury, and balance risk/benefit.
Following the Nazi crimes
25
The Declaration of Helsinki requires:
Care be taken to protect non-therapeutic research subjects from harm.
26
What is the basis for the core ethical principle: Justice?
Right to fair treatment and the right to privacy. Researchers must equally distribute burdens and benefit
27
What is the basis for the core ethical principle: Beneficence?
Do no harm. Increase benefit and decrease risk to study participants
28
What is the basis for the core ethical principle: Respect for human dignity?
The right to self-determination and the right to full disclosure. Includes informed consent, right to withdraw from study, and not be coerced
29
What does IRB stand for?
Institutional Review Board
30
What is the IRB's role?
- Promote conduct of ethical research
- Protect the rights of those who participate
- Assess risk:benefit ration
- Ensure compliance with federal regulation
- Ensure participants are selected in an equitable fashion
- Informed consent is obtained
- Confidentiality is maintained
- Date collection and safety standards upheld
- Vulnerable pops. protected.
31
What is an important aspect of the composition of an IRB?
There should be at least 5 members and at lease 1 member has to be a non-researcher
32
What is an Exempt Research?
Study does not pose any apparent risk. There is no way to link date with subjects (anonymous surveys, etc)
33
What is an Expedited Review?
Study that poses minimal risk; no more than that, that is encountered in daily life or with routine testing
34
What is a Full/Complete Review and when is it used?
Used when study has greater than minimal risk, uses a vulnerable population, or when subject identity must be known to researchers
35
What are examples of vulnerable groups/populations that may be involved in research?
- Children
- Mentally ill
- Severely ill or physically disabled
- Terminally ill
- Institutionalized people
- Pregnant women
36
What aspect of a study is outlined under HIPPA regulations?
WHO will receive the information participants give
37
What is process consent?
The researcher continually renegotiates consent, allowing the participants to have a collaborative role
38
When a self-administered questionnaire is completed this reflects:
Implied consent
39
The most secure means of protecting confidentiality is:
Anonymity
40
What allows researchers to refuse to disclose identifying info on participants in any civil, criminal, administrative, or legislative proceeding at any level?
Certificate of Confidentiality
41
The 3 most common types of research misconduct include:
1. Fabrication
2. Falsification
3. Plagiarism
42
What is a power analysis?
A statistical analysis done prior to a study in order to reasonably see a result. Is there 'power' in the study?
43
What is an emergent design?
One that evolves in the field while collecting and analyzing date (qualitative)
44
Phenomenology can be described as:
Exploring and describing lived experiences (especially when very little is known about a phenomenon)
45
What are the two main schools associated with phenomenology?
1. Descriptive- described experiences
| 2. Interpretive- interpreting the context the lived experience occurs
46
What is the main source of information associated with phenomenology?
Interviews
47
The impact of phenomenological researchers beliefs are realized by _________ and controlled for by ___________
Introspection
| Bracketing
48
What is bracketing and which type of phenomenological research is it most important in?
Setting aside researcher bias so it does not affect the study. Most important in descriptive phenom. research
49
Phenomenology samples are usually how large?
5-10 people
| Smaller than ethnographic and grounded theory
50
Ethnography can be described as:
Describes and interprets cultural behaviors
| Patterns, lifeways, and experiences of a defined cultural group
51
What is ethnography grounded in?
Anthropology
52
What is often used as an information source for ethnographers?
'Artifacts'; what people make and use
| Ex- art, music, dance, etc
53
What is the difference between an emic and an etic perspective in ethnographic research?
An emic perspective is the insider view of the informants.
| An etic perspective is the outsiders interpretation of the experiences of that culture (researcher's view)
54
How is field work done in ethnographic research?
Researchers often use a participant observation strategy in which they make observations of the culture while participating in its activities
55
Who do ethnographers often enlist and why?
Key informants. These individuals have extensive knowledge of the culture and help researchers gain entry and establish rapport. They may also help researchers interpret things they have observed
56
Grounded theory can be described as:
Understanding and explaining basic social/psychological processes. Aimed at generating a theory
57
What are the two main schools of grounded theory?
1. Substantive theory
| 2. Formal grounded theory
58
What is substantive theory? (grounded theory)
Data is based or grounded in information from a specific area ( may serve as springboard to formal grounded theory)
59
What is formal grounded theory?
Seeks to develop a theory and extend the core variable
60
Does grounded theory begin with a focused research problem?
No, the problem emerges from the data
61
During the grounded theory research process what is the goal?
To identify the core variable
62
What is the core variable in grounded theory?
The social process people use to resolve the main concern/problem that is being studied.
Occurs frequently, links data together, describes a pattern
63
How can the historical qualitative research approach be described?
Uses a systemic approach to collect and compare data as it relates to past experiences
64
What is the goal of historical research?
To describe and interpret historical events
65
What is the assumption of historical researchers?
Nothing is new, so we should be able to search history for examples and learn about the present and future
66
Two sources associated with historical research?
1. Primary
| 2. Secondary
67
What are case studies?
In depth investigations of a single entity (ex- individual, family, institution, community, etc).
Researchers obtain large amounts of descriptive info and examine relationships amount different phenomena or may examine trends over time
68
What are the four main types of case studies?
1. Single
2. Multiple
3. Holistic (global nature of case studied)
4. Embedded (multiple units of analysis)
69
What is purposive sampling?
Selecting specific study participants that will allow researchers to learn the specific data needed
Ex- maximum variation sampling, homogenous sampling
70
What is convenience sampling?
Participants come forward/volunteer
71
What is snowball sampling?
Participants refer others or guide the researcher to other potential participants. Also known as nominated
72
What is theoretical sampling?
A type of purposive sampling use in grounded theory. In which selection of incidents, people, etc are done on the basis of their potential manifestation or representation of important theoretical constructs.
73
What type of interviews start with a grand tour questions?
Unstructured interviews.
74
What type of interviews are focused based on the information the researcher would like to know?
Semistructured interviews
75
What is a focus group interview?
5 or more participants. Should be homogenous
76
When are joint interviews used?
When interpersonal relationships are important to the study
77
How are life histories and oral histories different?
Life histories are self-disclosed narrative while oral histories are personal recollections of experiences told to a researcher
78
These relate to incidents directly related to data be collected:
Critical incidents
79
What is the goal of participant observation?
To understand behaviors and experiences as they occur in natural environments.
80
What are three common types of observations?
1. Descriptive (broad, allows researcher to figure out the basics)
2. Focused (hone in on selective events)
3. Selective (most focused, facilitate comparisons)
81
What is critical case sampling?
Selecting cases that are especially important or illustrative
82
What is data saturation?
When no new information is being generated, redundancy is reached
83
What is reflexivity?
Awareness of the part the researcher plays in the study and the effect they have on the data
84
What are the 2 major ways unstructured observational date are most commonly recorded?
1. Logs
| 2. Field notes
85
What are participant written accounts usually referred to as?
Diaries
86
What is an audit trail?
A researcher's systematic documentation of material that allows an independent auditor to draw conclusions about trustworthiness
87
What are the two most frequently used data collection in a qualitative study?
Self report
| Observation
88
How many hours does it generally take to transcribe a 1 hour interview?
3-5hrs
89
What is the minimum amount of time a researcher should read over their date (interviews, logs, etc)?
3 times
90
How was qualitative data managed previous to computers?
Through the use of conceptual files
91
Data management is _________ in nature.
Reductive
92
Data analysis is ________ in nature.
Constructive
93
How is qualitative data analysis inductive?
The process is creating a whole greater than the sum of its parts. Data is broken down into code and themes are generated
94
What are the four levels of ethnographic data analysis?
1. Domain (units of cultural knowledge; patterns found)
2. Taxonomy (which domains analyzed and system of classifying/organizing)
3. Componential (relationship amount terms in domain analyzed)
4. Theme (cultural themes uncovered)
95
When does ethnographic analysis begin?
The moment the researcher sets foot into the field.
96
What is the goal of the descriptive approach to phenomenological analysis?
To find common patterns of experiences shared by particular instances
97
What are the differences between the holistic, selective, and detailed approach of descriptive phenomenological analysis?
Holistic- views text as a whole
Selective- pulls our key statements and phrases
Detailed- analyzes every sentence
98
The interpretive approach to phenomenological analysis adhere to:
Hermeneutics
99
What is central to analyzing data in a hermeneutic study?
A hermeneutic circle which depicts the continual movement from part to whole to part. Represents a continuum used prior to the emerging themes.
100
What type of data analysis is used in grounded theory?
Constant comparative.
101
What is constant comparative analysis?
Type of data analysis related to grounded theory. All data sources are compared and core codes emerge
102
How are substantive and theoretical codes of grounded theory data analysis related?
The substance of the topic under study is conceptualized throughout substantive codes, while theoretical codes provide insight into how substantive codes are related to one another
103
Substantive codes (grounded theory) are either:
Open- first stage in constant comparative analysis, captures what is going on in the data, may use participant's own words
Selective- only data related to the core variable
104
What are the levels of open coding in grounded theory data analysis?
Level I- derived directly from the language
Level II- new level I codes compared to established Level I codes are condensed into this level
Level III- theoretical constructs
105
What do theoretical codes help grounded theorists do?
Weave the broken pieces of data back together. Enhance the abstract meaning of the relationships between substantive codes
106
When is a literature review often carried out in a grounded theory study?
After data collection
107
What is emergent fit and what type of study is it used in?
A concept in grounded theory that involves comparing new data and new categories with previously existing conceptualizations
108
What is the main theme of grounded theory research called?
Central category or core category
109
What is axial coding?
The second level of coding in grounded theory, involving the process of categorizing, recategorizing, and condensing first level codes by connecting a category and its subcategories
110
What is the process of living with the data?
Incubation
111
What in a qualitative study is similar to reliability and validity in quantitative research?
Trustworthiness
112
What are the four (+1) criteria for developing trustworthiness in a qualitative study (Lincoln and Guba)?
```
Credibility
Dependability
Confirmability
Transferability
+Authenticity
```
113
What is credibility?
Confidence in the truth of the data and interpretations of them
(must carry out a study in a way that enhances believability of the findings and take steps to demonstrate credibility in research reports- audit trails etc
114
What is dependability?
The stability (reliability) of data over time and conditions
Credibility can not be obtained in the absence of dependability
115
What is confirmability?
Accuracy/congruency between participants.
Ensures that the data represents the information participants provided and that interpretations were not invented by researchers
116
What is transferability?
The extent to which findings can be transferred to or have applicability in other settings or groups
'Fitting-ness'
117
What is authenticity?
Extent to which researchers fairly and faithfully show a range of realities
118
What is prolonged engagement vs persistent observation?
Prolonged engagement is important in establishing credibility; it is the investment of sufficient time data collecting and immersing oneself in data to provide rich, detailed information.
Persistent observation refers to the researchers' focus on the characteristics or aspects of a situation/convo that are relevant to the phenomena being studied
119
What do data and method triangulation refer to?
Data triangulation is the use of multiple data sources to validate conclusions. Method triangulation is the use of multiple methods in data collection.
(time- collecting data on the same phenomena at diff times; space- same phenomena at multiple sites; person- collecting data from multiple levels of people)
120
What is meant to enhance quality and rigor and is described as two or more investigators carrying out independent coding and data analysis?
Investigator triangulation
121
What is member checking?
Researchers go back to participants to check interpretations. This can enhance a study's credibility
122
When researchers used competing theories or hypotheses in analyzing and interpreting data this is called:
Theory triangulation
123
What is a negative case analysis?
When researchers search for cases that appear to disconfirm earlier hypotheses and revise their interpretations as necessary
124
What assumption to qualitative studies make in regards to reality?
Multiple realities exist
125
What are quasi-statistics?
Used in a qualitative study, they tabulate frequency of themes or insights in the data
