Exam revision Flashcards
1
Q
How many orders of amphibians are there, and what are they?
A
There are three orders of amphibians: Caudata, Gymnophiona, and Anura.
2
Q
What is the only native Australian order of amphibians?
A
Anura is the only native Australian order of amphibians, comprising toads and frogs.
3
Q
What are some characteristic features of Anura amphibians?
A
- X tails
- short stumpy body
- urostyle = shock absorber
- 5 native fams in Aus
- only order endemic to Aus
4
Q
Can you name some native Australian frog families and their approximate species diversity?
A
Some native Australian frog families include:
- Limnodynastidae (Ground frogs): 46 species
- Myobatrachidae (Southern frogs): 90 species
- Hylidae/Pelodryadidae (Australian tree frogs): 91 species
- Microhylidae (Tiny treefrogs): 24 species
- Ranidae (‘True frogs’): 1 species
5
Q
What are some examples of invasive amphibian species?
A
Invasive amphibian species include Bufonidae (cane toads) and Salamandridae (smooth newts).
6
Q
What are the common reproductive strategies of Anura amphibians?
A
Anura amphibians use the following reproductive strategies:
- Mating calls to communicate during the breeding season.
- External fertilization, where eggs are fertilized outside the body.
- They have a typical aquatic larval stage, known as tadpoles.
- devt can be seasonal and slow e.g. Corroborree frog - halts larval devt until late winter
7
Q
What are the common characteristics of mammals?
A
Common mammal characteristics include having hair, female lactation (milk production), skeletal similarities (e.g., jawbone structure), and are endothermic.
8
Q
In which continent can you find all three mammal orders?
A
Australia is the only continent with all three mammal orders: eutherians, monotremes, and marsupials.
9
Q
What are some examples of eutherian mammals found in Australia?
A
- Terrestrial eutherians: Bats (79 species, including insectivorous and megabats), dingoes, and rodents (e.g., hopping desert mouse).
- Marine eutherians: Cetacea (whales and dolphins), Carnivora (seals), and Sirenia (dugongs).
10
Q
Name two monotreme species and explain their unique characteristics.
A
Two monotreme species are:
- Platypus (1 species)
- Echidna (1/3 species in Australia)
Unique characteristics of monotremes include:
- Endemic to Australia and Papua New Guinea.
- They are hairy and lactate but do not have teats.
- Reptilian characteristics, such as a pectoral girdle and oviparity (egg-laying).
- They have electroreception, which allows them to detect electrical impulses from prey.
11
Q
What are the two major groups of marsupials, and can you provide examples from each group?
A
Marsupials are divided into two major groups:
- Polyprotodons (carnivorous/omnivorous): Examples include bandicoots and bilbies, with dasyurids such as the Tasmanian devil and quoll.
- Diprotodonts (herbivorous/omnivorous): Examples include wombats, koalas, possums, and macropods, such as tree kangaroos, musky rat-kangaroos, quokka, Eastern grey kangaroos, tammar wallabies, and black wallaroos.
Other notable examples
- Possums and gliders: This group includes sugar gliders, scaly-tailed possums, cuscus, and bobucks.
- Marsupial moles: Found in arid Central and Western Western Australia.
12
Q
What are the reproductive strategies of each mammallian order?
A
- Eutherians: Viviparous (giving birth to live young) with variable gestation periods.
- Monotremes: Oviparous (laying eggs) with a high parental investment in incubation period.
- Marsupials: Viviparous with a high PI and simultaneous gestation stages
13
Q
What is the timeline of the Gondwanan split, and when did it begin?
A
The Gondwanan split began around 160 million years ago. New Zealand started separating around 80 million years ago, and South America separated approximately 30 million years ago.
14
Q
When did Australia separate from Gondwana, and what type of vegetation covered most of it as it drifted northward?
A
Australia separated from Gondwana around 35 million years ago. It was mostly covered in rainforest vegetation as it drifted northward with the Greater Indian Plate.
15
Q
How did the isolation from Antarctica affect the development of the circum-polar current, and what impact did it have on Antarctic temperatures?
A
The isolation from Antarctica enabled the development of the circum-polar current approximately 30 million years ago, which led to a significant decrease in Antarctic temperatures.
16
Q
When did humans first arrive in Australia, according to the archaeological record?
A
According to the archaeological record, humans arrived in Australia around 49,000 to 65,000 years ago.
17
Q
What South Hemisphere species distribution suggests ancient connections due to the Gondwanan split?
A
- bony-tongue FW fish (osteoglossids) b/c only found in FW
- ratites (flightless birds) - emus, ostriches, cassowaries, rheas
- Nothofagus (southern beech trees) -found in SAm + Aus + NZ - 100mya fossil record predates Aus’ split from G
18
Q
How do Glossopteris fossils in Antarctica, South America, Australia, and South Africa provide evidence of historical climate conditions?
A
Glossopteris fossils in these regions suggest historically warmer and more humid climate conditions.
19
Q
What were some consequences of the development of the polar current and the drifting of Australia northward?
A
Consequences of these geological events include:
- Increased aridity + contraction of rainforests from around 30 million years ago.
- low nutrient content of landscape bc old land + little volcanic activity + nutrient leeching during warm-wet periods (est laterite land surface - e.g. GOR - bc iron ox + clay bleeching gives red-to-white gradient appearance)
- Wind erosion during dry-cold periods created mobile dunes and salt plains on dried-up lakes.
- Increased fire frequency, leading to the evolution of fire-adapted plants and animals.
20
Q
How do geological features like the Great Dividing Range influence rainfall patterns in Australia?
A
The Great Dividing Range traps rainclouds and channels water to the east, resulting in increased rainfall in the eastern coastal edge and arid conditions in the western regions of Australia.
21
Q
What is the challenge in tropical rainforests due to their dense canopy cover?
A
The challenge in tropical rainforests is competition for light, as the dense canopy cover exceeds 90%.
21
Q
What are some adaptations of plants in tropical rainforests to overcome the challenge of competition for light?
A
- Parasitic plants like Balanophora, which are root parasites with no leaves or stems.
- Epiphytes like strangling fig trees.
- Plants with compound leaves to increase surface area, such as ferns.
22
Q
What is the primary challenge in deserts when it comes to vegetation?
A
Deserts have low rainfall.
23
Q
How do plants in deserts adapt to low rainfall and harsh conditions?
A
- Light-colored foliage, e.g., White cypress pine (Callitris glaucophylla), to reflect excess sunlight.
- Salt-depositing bladder cells to excrete excess salt.
- Round stems to reduce water loss.
- Succulent plants like boab trees with fleshy leaves and large cells filled with fluid sap for drought tolerance.
- Thick cuticles with a waxy coating to make leaves water-tight and provide UV protection.
- Stomatal protection through structures like hairs, rolling leaves, and sinking stomata to insulate stomatal apertures and reduce water loss, e.g., spinifex (rolling).
- Low leaf surface area to volume ratio.
- Root distribution to access subterranean water sources.
- Habitat preferences near water supplies.
- Leaf azimuth, using paraheliotropic angling, e.g., Hardenbergia.
- Drought deciduity, where some species shed leaves to conserve water.
24
How does fire influence the vegetation in Southeast Australia?
41% spp SE Aus inc germination w smoke exposure - emphasis on imp of smoke/heat combo (Carthey et al. 2018 & Hodges et al. 2021)
25
What are some adaptations of plant species in response to fire in the Southeast Australian region?
Species survival:
- Woody female cones in plants like White cypress pine (Callitris glaucophylla) to protect seeds.
- Banksia's woody fruit follicles requires fire to crack open and expose seeds.
- Acacia's legumes requires fire to crack open and germinate seeds.
- Smoke acting as a seed 'hormone' that stimulates flowering in plants like Xanthorrhoea and Kingia.
Individual survival:
- thick fibrous bark that protects phloem and vascular cambium, enabling plant growth.
Promoting fire through mechanisms like eucalypt oil production.
- Resprouting from epicormic buds, lignotubers, rhizomes, and root suckers.
26
What is the challenge for coral reefs in the Great Barrier Reef due to the year-round thermocline?
The year-round thermocline leads to low nutrients and low biological productivity in the Great Barrier Reef.
27
How do complex interspecific interactions in the Great Barrier Reef help sustain coral reef ecosystems?
- Coral-algae interactions: Coral and zooxanthellae (endosymbiotic microalgae) supply nutrients to each other.
- Coral-calcifying algae (CCA) interactions: CCA cues coral recruitment, suppresses macroalgal growth, and contributes to the solidification of reef structures.
- The complexity of these interactions allows coral reefs to thrive despite low nutrient availability.
28
Why is the low nutrient environment in the Great Barrier Reef important for coral reef ecosystem sustainability?
The low nutrient environment is essential for preventing excess nutrients, which can lead to the proliferation of macroalgae and crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS) outbreaks.
29
What are the key features of the Desert biome?
- Vast stony/sandy areas.
- Dunes.
- Low stony hills.
- Mostly flat terrain.
30
What are the factors influencing diversity in the Desert biome?
- Approximately 70% of Australia is arid or semi-arid.
- Variable rainfall.
- Variable food availability.
- Weathered terrain leading to nitrogen and phosphorus-poor soil.
- Microhabitats like cracked soil, stony deserts, and spinifex.
31
What is the evidence of diversity and endemism in the Desert biome?
- The highest diversity is found in invertebrates, with ants and termites dominating.
- The Desert biome is also home to various types of vertebrates.
32
What are the key features of the Rainforest biome?
- There are two main types: tropical rainforests with ferns and palms, high species richness, and wet lowlands in Queensland, and temperate rainforests often characterized by single species like myrtle beech in Victoria and Tasmania.
- Tropical rainforests have a dense canopy cover exceeding 90%.
33
What factors influence diversity in the Rainforest biome?
- Rainforests are Gondwanan relics that remained after the majority of rainforests contracted.
- High rainfall and food availability contribute to biodiversity and high biological productivity.
34
What is the evidence of diversity and endemism in the Rainforest biome?
- Rainforests are home to 50% of Australian fern species.
- Far North Queensland and Tasmania are biodiversity hotspots.
- Rainforests host 13 of the most primitive angiosperm families, including Austrobaileya, with pollen similar to the oldest angiosperm fossils dating back to 120 million years ago.
- Gondwanan relic species like the musky rat kangaroo are present.
- Australian rainforests are unique because small birds disperse 97% of the fruit, while mammals and cassowaries disperse the remaining 3%.
- High biological productivity results in 80% of rainforest fruits being fleshy compared to 17% in Victorian forests.
- Rainforests support 33% of Australian mammal species, 16% of bird species, 23% of reptile species, 23% of frog species, and over 75,000 invertebrate species.
35
What are the key features of the Alpine biome?
- Alpine biomes include the subnival zone and treeline, covering only 0.15% of Australia's landmass.
36
What factors influence diversity in the Alpine biome?
- High water availability, making up 25% of Australia's rainforest regions.
- Strong winds and extreme temperature differences between day and night.
- Average temperatures in warm months are below 10°C.
- Seasonal food availability.
37
What is the evidence of diversity and endemism in the Alpine biome?
- invertebrates = most div + abundant
- low bioproductivity and strong winds means low plant spp. div - primarily herbfields + lichen
- Spp div = seasonal e.g. all bird spp mig seasonally e.g. flame robin
- spp div dec as alt inc
38
What are the key features of the Great Barrier Reef (GBR) biome?
- Located in far northern Queensland.
- Comprises more than 3,000 reefs covering 24,000 square kilometers.
- Includes seagrass, mangroves, and islands.
- Originated 7,000 to 9,000 years ago following the last ice age, with a significant sea level drop.
39
What factors influence diversity in the Great Barrier Reef (GBR) biome?
- Stony corals serve as a habitat and a refuge for various species.
- The Great Barrier Reef experiences low nutrient availability and low biological productivity due to a year-round thermocline that inhibits the mixing of deep nutrient-rich water.
40
What is the evidence of diversity and endemism in the Great Barrier Reef (GBR) biome?
- 10% spp endemic
- The GBR exhibits the world's highest diversity in red and brown algae and fish species.
- Diversity is concentrated within coral reefs, with over 600 hard and soft coral species.
- The GBR is home to approximately 3,000 mollusc species, about 1,625 fish species, over 30 species of whales and dolphins, 6 species of turtles, and more than 200 bird species.
41
What are the key features of the Great Southern Reef (GSR) biome?
- Extends over 8,100 kilometers along the southern coastline of Australia.
- Dominated by kelp and fucoid algae, which serve as habitats and refuges.
- Experiences variable temperatures and is subject to strong waves and the influence of boundary currents like the Leeuwin and East Aus currents.
42
What factors influence diversity in the Great Southern Reef (GSR) biome?
- boundary currents (Leeuwin and East Australian) maintains a stable climate and connects larval and propagule populations.
- extreme weather conditions, including strong waves
- variable temperatures allows for seasonal thermocline, which enables nutrients to mix during winter and support greater bioproductivity than the GBR
43
What is the evidence of diversity in the Great Southern Reef (GSR) biome?
- spatiallydiv - each reef in unique
- ES incl. kelp forests, coastal reefs, and seagrass meadows.
- wide range of fish, ray and shark spp, incl. ornate cowfish, smooth stingray, old wife, and common stranger.
- 80-90% spp in most marine grps = endemic vs 10% GBR
44
How do reptiles relate to the monophyletic tree, and where are their hotspots for diversity?
- Reptiles are not monophyletic; turtles branch early, leading to two main reptile groups: archosaurs and lepidosaurs.
- Reptile diversity hotspots are in the desert and tropics, with approximately 90% of species being endemic.
45
What are the orders of reptiles and some key details about each?
- Crocs (1 Family, 1 Genus, 2 Species, tropical, with freshwater crocs being endemic).
- Turtles (4 Families, 15 Genera, 29 Species, including freshwater and marine turtles, such as Chelidae, Carettochelydidae, and Cheloniidae, with high conservation concern).
- Squamates (snakes and lizards) with various families and species, including Agamidae, Geckos, Legless lizards, Scincidae, Varanidae (monitors/goannas), Typhlopidae (blind snakes), Pythonidae, Acrochordidae (file snakes), Colubridae (tree snakes), Elapidae (venom/sea snakes), Laticaudidae, and Hydrophiinae.
46
Which reptile family includes "dragons," and what are their characteristics?
- Agamidare
- widespread and mainly endemic
- They are known for basking and their fast nature.
47
What are some characteristics of geckos, and where are they most diverse?
- three families
- not present in Tasmania.
- They are most diverse in arid and tropical regions.
- They have tail autonomy, are mainly nocturnal, use camouflage, and some have sticky feet.
48
What is unique about legless lizards, and where are they found?
- endemic to Australia and Papua New Guinea, except for Tasmania.
- X forelimbs
- vestigial hind-limbs
- vocal
- tail autonomy
49
What are some key features of Scincidae, or skinks?
- Scincidae is the most diverse lizard family in Australia.
- They have 439 species and are the largest and most widespread lizard family.
- Some have reduced limbs.
50
What are the characteristics of monitors/goannas?
- Varanidae
- Aus= spp div hotspot bc 29/38 spp found here
- forked tongues
- relatively lg
51
What are some characteristics of blind snakes?
- Typhlopidae
- small
- nocturnal
- insectivorous
52
What are some characteristics of pythons?
- Pythonidae
-most diverse in Northern Australia.
- up to 7 meters in length
- detect endothermic prey through heat pits
- kill prey via constriction - asphyxiation
53
What are some characteristics of file snakes?
- Acrochordidae
- aquatic snakes that feed on fish
- X possess venom
- recent arrivals to Aus
54
What are the characteristics of tree snakes, and where are they primarily found?
- Colubridae
- low diversity in Australia
- mainly located in the north and east coast
- arboreal or aquatic
- rear-fanged
- some venomous
55
What are some key features of venomous and sea snakes?
- Elapidae
- widespread, with 141 species.
- Some are front-fanged venomous, while others are non-dangerous.
- Bandy-bandy snakes specialize in feeding on blind snakes.
56
What is unique about the subfamilies Laticaudidae and Hydrophiinae?
- These subfamilies are part of Elapidae.
- They include sea snakes and are now considered elapids.
57
Which reptiles are oviparous, and do they exhibit maternal care?
- Oviparous reptiles include crocs, turtles, all Agamidae lizards (dragons), all geckos, some Scincidae, all Varanidae, all Pythonidae, some Colubridae, and some Elapidae.
- Crocs exhibit maternal care.
58
Which reptiles are viviparous and are common in cold/southern regions?
- Viviparous reptiles are some Scincidae, all Acrochordidae, some Colubridae, some Elapidae, and all Hydrophiinae.
59
What are the courtship behaviors of Agamidae lizards (dragons)?
- head bobbing
- arm waving
60
What is parthenogenesis, and which reptiles exhibit it?
- Parthenogenesis is a form of reproduction in which females can produce offspring without fertilization by males.
- Some geckos exhibit parthenogenesis.
61
Which reptiles are known to incubate their eggs?
Pythons
62
How is sex determined in marine turtles and freshwater crocs?
- In marine turtles, sex determination depends on temperature: below 30°C results in all males, 30-32°C results in a mix of genders, and above 32°C results in all females.
- In freshwater crocs, it's the opposite: below 30°C results in all females, 30-32°C results in a mix of genders, and above 32°C results in all males.
63
What group do most Australian birds belong to, and what are some defining features of birds?
- Most Australian birds belong to the group of corvids, which are descended from crows and ravens.
- Defining features of birds include feathers, wings, light and strong hollow bones, beaks (lacking teeth), oviparous reproduction, and endothermic metabolism.
64
How many species of birds are found in Australia, and what are the largest and smallest Australian bird species?
- Australia is home to 898 bird species.
- The largest Australian bird is the cassowary, and the smallest is the Weebil.
65
What is the scientific classification for modern birds, and what is the order that includes songbirds and perching birds?
- Modern birds belong to the class Aves.
- The order that includes songbirds and perching birds is the Order Passerines, which makes up half of the global bird species diversity.
66
What are the five broad groups of birds found in Australia, and can you provide examples of bird species from each group?
The five broad groups of Australian birds are:
1. Gondwanan non-passerines (e.g., ratites, parrots, and penguins)
2. Australasian passerines (e.g., fairy wrens, magpies, and honeyeaters)
3. Eurasian passerines e.g. european starlings
4. Introduced species (e.g., feral pigeon and house sparrow)
5. Global groups such as raptors (diurnal and nocturnal) and sea/shorebirds (e.g., seagulls).
67
What are some characteristics of Gondwanan non-passerines in Australia, and can you provide examples of bird species in this group?
- Gondwanan non-passerines in Australia include ratites, parrots (with characteristics like monogamy, strong curved beaks, bright colors, and tree hollow nests), and penguins (with one species).
68
Name some key phyla of invertebrates.
- Platyhelminthes (flatworms)
- Nematoda (roundworms)
- Annelida (segmented worms)
- Arthropoda (insects)
- Onychophora (velvet worms)
- Mollusca (snails)
- Cnidaria (corals)
- Formicideae (ants)
- Isoptera (termites)
69
What are some distinguishing characteristics of flatworms?
- Platyhelminthes
- They have a distinct eye on their head.
- They are dorso-ventrally flattened.
- Some are freeliving, while others are parasitic.
70
What are the characteristics of roundworms?
- Nematoda
- bilaterally symmetrical.
- Most of them have parasitic larvae.
- common type in WA horticultural areas = root knot nematode = invades crop roots
71
Which organisms belong to the phylum Annelida, and what are some of their characteristics?
- Annelida includes segmented worms like earthworms and leeches.
- They have a nervous system.
- Many of them are hermaphroditic.
- They are mostly freeliving and are commonly found in low-abundance, undisturbed environments.
72
What are the key features of the phylum Arthropoda, and what are its major subphyla?
- Arthropoda is the largest terrestrial phylum with the highest diversity.
- They have an exoskeleton and jointed legs.
- Major subphyla include Chelicerata (spiders, mites, ticks, scorpions), Crustacea (sowbugs, yabbies, crabs), Myriapodia (centipedes and millipedes), and Hexapoda (butterflies, moths, ants, beetles).
73
What are velvet worms, and what is their habitat?
- Velvet worms belong to the phylum Onychophora.
- They inhabit rotting logs and are considered endangered due to birth defects resulting from outbreeding depression.
74
What is the second most diverse phylum of invertebrates, and what is an example?
- The second most diverse phylum of invertebrates is Mollusca.
- Snails are an example of this phylum.
75
What is the role of hermaphroditism in Cnidaria, specifically in corals?
- Cnidaria, including corals, exhibit various reproductive strategies.
- Approximately 80% of corals reproduce through hermaphroditic broadcast spawning
- Others reproduce via hermaphroditic/gonochoristic brooding.
76
What is unique about Formicideae and Isoptera?
* eusocial behaviour
* co-operative care
* caste system
* Formicideae = ants + Isoptera = termites
77
What are some of the challenges that Australian fauna in the rainforest biome face?
- Rainforests are contracting due to climate change, which affects the distribution of species.
- Despite this, the Australian rainforest is a Gondwanan relic, and it has high rainfall, food availability, and biodiversity.
78
What are some of the adaptations found in Australian fauna in the rainforest biome?
- Bird mating displays.
- Dietary specialization, as seen in species like the striped possum.
- Mutualistic relationships, such as ants tending to aphids for honeydew.
- Anti-predation strategies, including camouflage, mimicry, and the development of toxins.
79
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What challenges do Australian fauna in the desert biome face?
- Challenges include low water availability, variable food availability, and extreme heat.
80
What are some adaptations used by desert-dwelling Australian fauna to address these challenges?
- Some species remain dormant in egg or adult phases and breed rapidly when favorable conditions return.
- Migration, particularly in birds like budgerigars.
- Strategies of tolerance, such as insulation (living underground or having replete workers), water conservation, light coat coloration, and licking paws.
- Desert species typically have low water requirements compared to mammals and birds from other biomes.
81
What challenges do Australian fauna in the alpine biome face?
* high water availability
* strong winds
* extreme day/night temp diff
* low avg temp even in warm months (<10C)
* seasonal food availability
* low bioproductivity
82
What specific adaptations are seen in alpine fauna in terms of dealing with the challenges they face?
- Ectotherms use strategies like aestivation, seeking refugia, migration, having a small body size with reduced wings, stenothermism (narrow temperature tolerance), thermal melanism, and delayed development to cope with the challenges.
- Endotherms exhibit adaptations like torpor, hibernation, and being small in size, with examples including the mountain pygmy possum and the echidna.
83
How do species in the Great Barrier Reef (GBR) adapt to the challenges of being immobile with no organs for nutrient uptake?
Many coral species in the Great Barrier Reef rely on mutualistic relationships with zooxanthellae, which provide them with nutrients derived from photosynthesis. This is a passive nutrient source that helps the corals thrive.
84
What is the significance of Australia in terms of biodiversity?
- Australia is one of 17 mega-diverse nations.
- It is home to 8% of the world's species, with a significant number being endemic.
- Australia has over 21,000 flowering plant species, and more than 90% of them are endemic.
85
Where are the species richness hotspots in Australia?
- Species richness hotspots are found in the northern and central Northern Territory, the far northern part of Queensland, and the Queensland/New South Wales border region.
- The Tasmanian region, southwestern Western Australia, and the eastern coast of Queensland and New South Wales are also biodiversity hotspots.
86
Name some of the largest plant families in Australia.
- The largest plant families in Australia include Myrtaceae, Fabaceae, Proteaceae, and Mimosaceae.
87
What are the characteristics and significance of cassowaries?
- Cassowaries are Gondwanan relics and belong to the ratite group of flightless birds.
- They are the largest birds in Australia, measuring up to 2 meters in height, and have a distinctive inner toe claw.
- Cassowaries are important for seed dispersal, particularly the seeds of the Java Ash tree.
88
What are the main types of non-flowering plants in Australia?
- conifers (e.g., cypress pines)
- cycads
- ferns
- bryophytes (comprising liverworts, hornworts, and mosses).
89
What are some characteristic organisms found in the Great Barrier Reef?
- Organisms in the Great Barrier Reef include red algae (Rhodophyta), brown algae (Ochrophyta), ascidians (sea squirts), crustaceans (Arthropoda), annelids, elasmobranchs (rays/sharks), ray-finned/bony fish (e.g., clown fish, Maori wrasse), octocorals, sponges, echinoderms (e.g., starfish, sea urchins), mollusks (e.g., snails, bivalves, cephalopods), reptiles (turtles), and mammals (dugongs, whales).
90
What is the definition of a biome?
A biome is a distinctive and ecologically significant region characterized by specific climate conditions and the species that inhabit it.
91
Define "community" in ecological terms.
- A community is a group of potentially interacting species that occur together in the same space and time.
92
What is the concept of "symbiosis" in ecology?
Symbiosis refers to a long-term intimate association between two or more species in which they interact with each other.
93
What is the definition of a "microhabitat"?
A microhabitat is a precise location within a habitat where a particular species is usually found.
94
Describe the body plan of stony coral (scleractinian).
- Stony corals have polyps with six or multiple tentacles.
- They exhibit a modular structure and radial symmetry.
- They possess stinging cells called cnidae/cnidocytes.
- Stony corals lack hearts and lungs.
- All reef-building species of stony coral form symbiotic relationships with microalgae.
95
What dietary specialization is seen in striped possums and what habitat do they inhabit?
Why did researchers suspect dietary specialisation?
- Striped possums, found in the tropical rainforest, exhibit dietary specialization due to their rounded cranium, prominent incisors, elongated tongue, and fourth finger.
- Their diet primarily includes wood-boring larvae and social insects.
96
How do cassowaries adapt to their environment, especially concerning the consumption of fruit?
- They can eat Java Ash fruit whole, avoiding the cyanogenic effects.
- This adaptation allows them to disperse seeds in their droppings.
97
What is the relationship between Myrmecodia (epiphytes) and ants?
- Myrmecodia plants, which are epiphytes, form a mutualistic relationship with ants.
- Ants inhabit plant chambers within Myrmecodia, providing the plant with nutrients from debris and excretia in return for refuge.
- Another mutualistic relationship involving Myrmecodia is one between ants and Golden Apollo butterfly larve, which ants will take care of because the larva enlarge the ants' domatia.
98
How do ants interact with sap-producing plants, like aphids?
- Ants "farm" sap-producing insects like aphids by stroking their antennae to induce the secretion of phloem sap.
- The ants collect and consume this sugary substance produced by the aphids.
99
Briefly describe Australia's history of extinction, including some examples.
- marsupial megafauna went extinct in Pleistocene (3 theories - CC, habitat change bc human use of fire, hunting)
- recent mammalian extinctions = attributed to intro spp since Eur invasion (feral cats + foxes = predators + herbivores e.g. camels, horses, cattle = problematic bc overgrazing causing soil + waterway degredation)
- some spp also extinct bc over-exploitation e.g. TAS tiger
100
What are some of the recent statistics regarding extinction in Australia?
- Australia has been described as the global capital for mammal extinctions.
- There have been 27 mammal species extinct since the European invasion, with 46 endangered species.
101
What are the main differences between legless lizards and snakes?
- Legless lizards have a fleshy tongue and ear holes, while snakes have slender, forked tongues and lack external ear holes.
102
What are the three hypotheses for the evolution of flight in birds?
The three hypotheses for the evolution of flight in birds are ground-up, trees-down, and sexual selection.
103
What is convergent evolution, and provide an example of it involving Australian and English birds?
- Convergent evolution is when unrelated species independently evolve similar traits or forms.
- In Australia and England, robins and wrens are visually similar, but they are not phylogenetically related, making it an example of convergent evolution.
104
What are the different tidal zones?
* splash/high/mid/low intertidal
* sub-tidal
105
Describe the physical environment in the intertidal zones.
- Humidity and temperature vary along Australian shores depending on climate and current
- Australian shores = mostly flat + populated by *Hormosira banksii* alga (habitat + refugia)
106
Name key taxa that live in splash/high intertidal zone.
* lichen
* filter feeding barnacles (crutaceans)
* limpets (e.g. false limpet (jawbone)//gastropod molluscs)
* herb snails (gastropod molluscs)
* pred/scav birds (e.g. kelp gull, pacific gull, oystercatcher)
107
Name key taxa that live in the mid intertidal zone
* algae (e.g. Neptune’s necklace Homosira banksii)
* filter feed calcareous tube worms Galeolaria caespitosa (solo or colony)
* many herb snails (e.g. common limpet, turban snail etc)
* carniv gastropod molluscs (e.g. checkerboard snail, dog whelk)
* scav crabs (e.g. purple-mottled shore crab)
108
Describe two adaptations of organisms living in the mid intertidal zone
* camo - e.g. seaweed crab evades pred thru decorative camo - similarly, sthrn dumpling squid sticks sand to skin + burrows
* safety in numbers - e.g. giant spider crab est lg grps (>100) during breeding + congregate again during winter moulting szn
109
Name key taxa that live in the low intertidal zone.
* mussels
* anenomes
* subtidal preds - octopi (e.g. sthrn blue-ringed oct)
* lg algae (e.g. bull kelp)
* lg fish (e.g. wrasse)
* subtidal herb molluscs (e.g. elephant snail)
110
Name an iconic Australian organism that lives in open water.
leatherback turtle
* infreq vistor to PPB
* carniv specialist feeder (jellyfish)
* mostly trop/temp waters (W+E Aus)
111
Describe the diets of taxa that occupy the splash/high intertidal zone
* barnacles filter feed
* snails = herb
* birds = pred/scav e.g. black swan (scav), whistling kite (scav during breeding szn - pred on sml mammals, birds, insects, fish etc. other wise - strong curved beak)
112
Describe the diets of taxa that occupy the mid intertidal zone
carniv/scav snails
* e.g. checkerboard snail uses long probiscis to probe into dead prey
* e.g. dog whelk drills into mussels/barnacles
113
Describe the diets of taxa that occupy the low intertidal zone
* ascidians (sea squirts) + mussels = sessile filter feeders
* anenomes = sessile pred
* octopi = mobile pred
114
How do you tell carnivorous and herbivorous snails apart?
- aperture = narrow long tapered C vs lg + round H
- siphon = tube-like mantle extension C vs absent H (head protudes to feed)
- siphonal canal = siphon passes thru to locate prey C vs absent H
115
How do invasive species impact diversity in different marine ecosystems?
- comp
- prey on native spp - esp problematic bc very few native spp = pred
- e.g. scallops - at risk bc able to detect native pred sea star spp (11 armed ss - ************************Coscinasterias muricata************************) but X intro spp sea star (nthn pacific ss - *********Asteria amurensis*********)
- other e.g. - pacific oyster, NZ screw shell, green shore crab, eur fan worm, wakame
- intro via shipping
116
Four types of resprouting after fire
1. epicormic buds (new shoots resprout from dormant buds under protected meristematic tissue = bark/stem)
2. lignotubers (new shoots resprout from dormant woody structures above or below ground)
3. rhizomes (new shoots resprout from underground rhizomatic stems)
4. root suckers (new shoots resprout from dormant buds attached to underground parts e.g. roots)
117
What family do whales and dolphins belong to?
Cetacea
118
Name a plant that is drought deciduous
Boab
119
Name a plant that uses paraheliotropic angling
Hardenbergia (Fabaceae - peas)
120
Name a desert plant that has light-coloured foliage
White cypress pine (*Callitrus glauchophylla*)
121
Name three families of Australian turtles
1. Chelidae (FW side-necked turtles)
2. Carettochelydidae (pignosed turtles - Nth Aus + PNG)
3. Cheloniidae (marine turtles - all global, return to birthplace to lay eggs)
122
Name families/groups of families of squamates (lizards/snakes)
1. Agamidae
2. Geckos (3 fams)
3. Legless lizards
4. Scincidae
5. Varanidae (monitors/goannas)
6. Typhlopidae (blind snakes)
7. Pythonidae
8. Acrochordidae (file snakes)
9. Colubridae (tree snakes)
10. Elapidae (venomous/sea snakes incl. subfams Laticaudidae + Hydrophiinae)
123
What is the sub-phyla that includes spiders, mites, ticks and scorpions called?
Chelicerata
124
Coral phylum name
Cnidaria
125
elephant snail
* low intertidal zone - rockpools
* herbivorous - feeds on algae
* nocturnal
* slug like gastropod w white trough-shaped shell
126
southern blue wringed octopus
* subtidal predator
* crevices and cracks of rocky reefs + close to seagrass forests
* southern coast
* diet = crabs, shrimp + sml fish
127
whistling kite
* splash zone
* scav during breeding szn
* otherwise pred on sml mammals, birds, insects + fish
* strong curved beak adapted to carniv diet
* widespread across Aus but uncommon in TAS
* raptor (X passerine)
128
dog whelk
* mid intertidal down to 100m subtidal
* rock pools, mud flats, lagoons
* drills into prey = mussels + barnacles
* endemic to Aus
* Townsville to Fremantle incl TAS
129
Example of coralivorous fish at GBR
Chevron butterflyfish
almost exclusively feeds on single coral spp (Acropora hyacinthus)
130
Plant evolution order
1. vasc tissue
2. seeds
3. flowers
131
Oldest fossils of non-flowering plants
- bryophytes = >400mya
- fersn = 350mya
- cycads = 290-251mya
- conifers = >300mya
132
Name the three families of australian conifers and provide examples
- Araucariaceae (bunya pine)
- Podocarpaceae (plum pine)
- Cupressaceae (white cypress pines)
133
Describe the features of Callitrus glauchophylla that make it well-adapted to arid environments
- environment = central aus
- adaptations:
- light coloured foliage
- sml leaves
- round stems
- woody female cones = protect seeds from fire
134
What does vascular tissue allow plants to do?
transp water from soil to stems/leaves (fronds)
135
Key features of spores
- prod in lg quantities (>10mil/sq m)
- dust size
- highly tolerant - UV, desiccation, extreme temps
136
How do ferns and bryophytes survive in arid environments?
- sheltered micro-sites
- infreq sexual reprod
- asex reprod - veg prop
- persistent spores - remain viable >15yrs
- spores = highly tolerant to extreme temps + desiccation
137
List significant Australian plant families by species number size
1.Myrtaceae
3.Fabaceae
5.Proteaceae
7.Mimosaceae
138
What type of insect pollinates tea trees (fam. Myrtaceae)?
white flower → flies, beetles + bees
139
How many species of eucalypt are there in Australia?
over 700
140
Where are eucalypts found?
all biomes except RF, alpine and arid desert
141
How many line of evolution and genera of eucalypt are there?
2 lines of evolution, 3 genera
142
Eucalyptus fossil record
- flowers/fruit = 30mya
- pollen = 60mya
143
Conifers
*Key Features:*
- Seeds and vascular tissue, but no flowers.
- Gondwanan distribution.
- Female cones produce wind-dispersed seeds.
- Three Australian families: Araucariaceae (e.g., bunya pine), Podocarpaceae (e.g., plum pines), Cupressaceae.
*Distribution:*
- Relictual distribution, primarily in mesic vegetation.
- Native cypress pines (Callitris genus) are the only conifers in semi-arid/arid Australia.
*Endemism:*
- 89% of species are endemic.
- Remaining non-endemic species are found in PNG/SE Asia.
144
Cycads
*Key Features:*
- Seeds and vascular tissue, but no flowers.
- Seeds in cones or loose clusters.
- Four genera, no fossil record for Cycas genus, suggesting recent colonization from Asia.
*Distribution:*
- Eastern and Northern coasts + SW WA.
- Fossil record suggests range contraction e.g. Bowenia fossils in VIC/TAS but only extant in QLD
- Aus = biodiv hotspot (home to ~70% all cycad spp)
*Endemism:*
- All 69 species are endemic.
145
Ferns
*Key Features:*
- Vascular tissue but no seeds/flowers.
- Little genetic variation despite widespread distribution.
- Reproduce via spores.
*Distribution:*
- Highest species richness in wet forests (50% of Aus fern species).
- Widespread along the coast.
*Endemism:*
- 35% ferns = endemic
- 20-30% bryophytes = endemic
146
Bryophytes
*Key Features:*
- No seeds, vascular tissue, or flowers.
- Includes mosses, liverworts, hornworts.
- High desiccation tolerance.
*Distribution:*
- Widespread along the coast.
- Highest species richness in wet forests.
*Endemism:*
- 20-30% endemic.
147
Proteaceae
*Key Features:*
- Woody shrubs/trees with corky bark and lignotubers
- Oldest Gondwanan plant family in Aus.
- Predominantly bird-pollinated.
*Distribution:*
- 800/>1500 species in Aus.
- Banksia + Grevillea found in low nutrient soil forests/woodlands/heathlands
- Macedamia + Telopea found in RF
148
Myrtaceae
*Key Features:*
- Largest angiosperm family in Aus.
- Leaves have oil glands, reducing damage.
- Eucalyptus flowers have an operculum.
* produce fruit incl. guava
* dry fruit form → ovary (capsule) splits at top along valve lines
* fleshy fruit form e.g. RF lilly pilly
*Distribution:*
- Dominant in forests/woodlands.
- River red gum is the most widespread species.
- Aus home to 1650/3000 Myrtaceae spp
- Angophora = E coast
- Corymbia = nth 1/2 of Aus + E coast
- Eucalyptus = everywhere
*Endemism:*
- Angophora is the only endemic genus.
149
Mimosaceae
*Key Features:*
- Largest genus of woody angiosperms.
- Important after fire for nitrogen fixation.
- Two leaf forms: bipinnate and phyllode.
*Distribution:*
- Dominates in semi-arid/arid areas.
*Endemism:*
- Most species are endemic to Aus.
150
Fabaceae
*Key Features:*
- Various forms, including trees, shrubs, climbers, creepers, herbs.
- Legumes have hard coats to protect seeds from fire.
- Flowers have a 'butterfly' shape.
*Distribution:*
- 1100 species in Aus.
151
How do termites thrive in harsh and low abundance environments?
* wide temp tolerance
* build mounds → trap humidity = creates ideal climate for termites
152
Why are termites importance ecosystem engineers?
diff feeding grps able to break down low nutrient biomass e.g. wood, grass, litter
153
shield shrimp
* drought evasive
* domancy in egg/cyst stage
* rapid devt into adults after hatching (2wks after rain)
* fast life cycle
* cysts (v tiny - can be disp by wind) remain in dypause for yrs when puddles dry out
154
burrowing frogs
e.g. *Cyclorana* spp
* conserves water via aestivation + cocooning
* emerge + breed rapidly after RF
155
Characteristics of schlerophylls
- slow growth
- sml cells
- use of carbs to prod lignin
- thick cells walls
156
Features of succulents
- fleshy leaves
- lg cells
- filled w fluid sap
- drought + salt tolerant
157
What proportion of vascular plant species use CAM?
7%
158
Advantages of CAM
ability to grow in hostile environs e.g. power lines
159
How do you differentiate between C3, C4 + CAM plants
diff 13C/12C signature
160
How does CAM cycling save water?
- stomata closed PM → C02 collected from resp
- stomata open AM → release C02 from storage ⇒ stomata X need to open v much
⇒ smler aperture = minimal avenue for transp ⇒ min H20 loss
161
What types of xerophyte are most CAM plants?
succulents
162
What kinds of plants are most known CAM in Australia?
epiphytes OR lithopythes
- min 53 orchids
- ferns
- *Myrmecodia*
163
Where do CAM plants reside?
terrestrial + aquatic
164
Why might C4 be more beneficial than CAM for desert flora?
C4 fixes CO2 into 4-CO2 molecule first = more efficient
CAM relies on temporal seperation to cue PT process = slower
some plant spp = drought evasive - need speedy + efficient E source during fleeting rain periods
165
C4 requires x? more water than CAM
x5
166
What type of vegetation commonly uses C4?
>90% grasses in nth Aus
167
Describe how C4 works
* rate of photoresp inc w temp
* C02 pump ‘sucks’C02 thru less open stomatal aperatures
* hinges on spatial sep of C fixation steps (instead of temporal sep used in CAM)
168
Describe how CAM works
* open stomata PM → C02 pumped by PEP carboxylase into storage (malic acid vacuole)
* close stomata in AM → traps H20 in plant → concentrationn C02 builds up → released to fuel PT + inhibit photoresp
* obligate OR facultative
169
What caused Lord Howe Island phasmid decline?
introduction of black rats
170
What conservation strategy was employed for the Lord Howe Island stick insect?
* captive breeding
* black rat pop control
