Exam Revision Flashcards
(178 cards)
1
Q
What mental disorders do people associate with crime?
A
Schizophrenia, Psychopathy, ASPD, DID
2
Q
Hinshaw 2008 defines mental illness as:
A
Referring to a wide variety of categories of deviant, dysfunctional behavioural and emotional patterns, subject to variegated definitions but constituting hugely impairing conditions for individuals, families and societies at large
3
Q
James and Glaze 2006
A
75% of females and 63% of male prisoners have mental health issues
4
Q
Peterston et al 2014
A
Research indicates that approx 1/5 of criminal behaviour is mostly or completely related to mental illness
5
Q
Why is there issues with contradictory research on mental health and crime?
A
Methodological Issues
- different methods
- understanding of diagnostic criteria
- self report vs psychiatrist
- different diagnostic systems in different countries
- measurement of crime
6
Q
Hinshaw 2008 claims dangerousness is:
A
Rampant stereotype of people with mental illness, often promoted by public media, is that they are chronically violent and dangerous; this belief may underlie stigmatising attitudes
7
Q
Turner et al 2009
A
According to public opinions surveys, mentally ill people such as “schizophrenics” are seen as unpredictable and dangerous
8
Q
What is Cleckley 1976 definition of psychopathy?
A
The psychopath has manifested difficulty in social adjustment … lacks emotional control, is impulsive, lacks foresight and has an inability to withstand tedium
9
Q
What is McCord and McCord 1964 definition of psychopathy?
A
The psychopath is selfish, impulsive, aggressive and loveless and feels no guilt or remorse for appalling beh
10
Q
What is Hare 2003 definition of psychopathy?
A
A constellation of relatively distinct personality traits that may occur in the context of a criminal or socially deviant lifestyle
11
Q
Who created the original assessment for psychopathy?
A
Cleckley 1941
- 16 core traits
Hare 1980, 1991 and 2003 extended their ideas to develop the psychopathy Checklist-Revised as a standard measure
12
Q
Facts about PCL-R
A
- Used in CJS with forensics populations
- Assesses 20 characteristics on a 3 point scale
0 = does not apply
1 = applies to some extent
2 = reasonably good match - Based on interview and file info
- Score = 0-40
13
Q
Examples of PCL-R
A
- Glibness/superficial charm
- Shallow affect
- Impulsivity
- Poor Behavioural controls
- Many short term marital relationships
14
Q
Shipman and Psychopathy
A
DCI Williams
- he was arrogant
- wanted control and to dominate
- belittled police
- a game, competition
- thought he was of superior intellect
15
Q
Bundy and Psychopathy
A
- Confessed to 30 murders
- prolifically America serial killer
- described as educated, handsome, charming
- crimes incorporated this e.g. luring victims
- premeditated crimes, manipulation, conning
16
Q
Psychopathy and Crime
A
- Neumann et al 2015 = commit a large portion of crime
- Serin 1991 = especially violent crimes
- Swogger et al 2010 = predatory nature in crime
- Gray et al 2003 and Kennealy et al 2010 = Factor 2 (Social Deviance) trait of psychopathy are more predictive of violent crime than Factor 1 (Interpersonal/Affective)
17
Q
What is diagnostic criteria of ASPD?
A
1) significant impairments in personality and interpersonal functioning manifested by:
- ego centricity and self esteem derived from personal gain, power or pleasure
- goal setting based on personal gratification
- lack of remorse after hurting or mistreating another
- exploitation or others including deceit and coercion, use of dominance or intimidation
2) pathological personality traits in the following domains
- manipulation: frequent use of subterfuge to influence/control others, use of seduction, charm and glibness to achieve
- Deceitfulness: misrepresentation of the self, embellishment or fabrication when relating to events
- Callousness: lack of concern for others feelings, lack of guilt
- Irresponsibility: disregard for obligations/commitments and a lack of respect to follow through
- Impulsivity: acting the spur of the moment, difficulty establishing and following plans
- Risk Taking: engagement I’m dangerous, risky and potentially self damaging activities unnecessarily, boredom proneness
18
Q
ASPD and crime
A
- Fazel and Danesh = 1/2 males offenders and 1/5 female offenders
- Fridell et al 2008 = able to sig predict criminal behaviour and should be a target in preventative treatment
- Joseph and Benefield 2010 = most prevalent amongst newly sentenced prisoners
19
Q
How did Krapelin classify Psychosis?
A
1) Manic depression (now seen as comprising a range of good disorders such as major depression and BPD)
2) Dementia Praecox
Thus was the start of a shift towards classification, and a forerunner for the DSM
20
Q
DSM criteria for Schizophrenia and Other Psychotic Disorders
A
A) 2 or more of the following, each present for a sig portion of time during a 1 month period
- Delusions, Hallucinations, Disorganised or Incoherent speech, Grossly Disorganised or Catatonic Beh, Dimished Emotional Expression
B) Social/Occupational disfunction
C) Continous signs of disturbance for at least 6 month and 1 month of symptoms
D) Schizoaffective disorder ruled out
E) Substance and medical condition excluded
F) Relationship to a pervasive developmental disorder e.g. if ASD present, then can only diagnose if D/H present for 1 month
21
Q
Schizophrenia and Crime
A
- Wallace et al 2004 = sig more likely to be a convicted criminal (both men and women)
- Appelbaum et al 2021 = other studies not found a significance
22
Q
What are the legal prerequisites of a crime?
A
1) Actus Reus
- accused caused the particular act in present, beh was voluntary, had criminal intent, exercising free will, held responsible
2) Mens Rea
- relates to state of mind, intention, did they understand the consequences
23
Q
What is NGRI?
A
M’Naghten rule in 1840s
- everyone presumed sane until proven insane
- must be proved that during the time of the crime, the accused was acting under such a defect of reason, from disease of the mind as to not know the nature of the act or they were doing wrong
24
Q
What is Diminished Responsibility?
A
- Must be proof of substantially impaired mental responsibility
- difficult to define psychologically
- Mentally incompetent to stand trial or unfit to make a plea of guilty or not guilty
25
What did Howitt believe about mental disorders and crime?
There was a circular argument
26
What is the Responsibilisation Debate?
Deciding who is responsible for a crime. Do we blame other people for our own actions?
27
What did Christie 1986 believe about the "ideal victim"?
- Some are more responsible or harmed than others
- Some are more at fault for being a victim
- Some people need to be protected more
- What bads groups together?
(Garland 2001, O'Malley 1992)
28
Examples of the Responsibilisation Debate
Reduction in CJS funding
- it is your fault if you cannot afford your fees
- the lack of policing highlights importance of self vigilance
Personal / Environmental Crime Prevention
- take own responsibility
- gov asks you to do things differently e.g. Home Office told people to not leave things in the back of you car
New Administrative
- Inherently wrong to blame the victim
- Example = "Stranger Danger" became "Clever Never Goes" but this puts blame onto children
29
What are the 3 ways we count crime in England and Wales?
1) Police Recorded
- not judged to be relevant by ONS due to police discretion and being filtered by prejudice
- even though the PCC is voted by locals, they tend to be politically anchored which affects which crimes are targetted
2) CSEW
- ask victims directly nationwide
- results are presented at a national level
3) Local Crime Surveys
- Example = Left Realists found 14 sexual offences in Islington alone but official reports found 1 in the whole of the UK
30
Why did Sparks et al find fault in the CSEW?
It doesn't measure repeat victimisation very well as it doesn't sample the same participants every time, so can't go back to ask the same people again
31
What is the difference between Victimisation rate and Prevalance rate?
Victimisation rate = average no of offences per X (time period)
Prevalance rate = percentage of population suffering repeated victimisation over a set period of time
(Sparks et al)
32
Is there a "Fear of Crime" or a "Percpetion of risk"?
Mohan et al 2011 = Percpetion gap
- people think crime is a problem even though rate is decreasing
- "The Great Crime Drop" even though the fear is rising, creating the "Life of Brian" effect
There is a local/national perception gap as people have a positive local perception but negative national perception, so the police cannot win
33
Which groups view crime differently?
- Tabloids increased sense of crime nationally and locally
- Personal victimisation would double fear locally and nationally
- Living in social housing perceived higher crime in local area but not nationally
- Men who were higher educated and working in managerial/professional jobs were protected
- Strongest association for pessimistic views were being victimised
- Gender, age and newspaper allegiance were some of the strongest predictors
- Older people percive higher local and national crime, and had more fear even though less likely to be victimised
- Ethnic Heterogeneity had no effect on sense of rising crime
34
What did Garbriel and Greve 2003 focus on?
Directly targetting Fear
- unlike Mohan et al who looks for perception of crime from a sociological viewpoint
- fear = psychological trait, transitionary usually but if repeated then become a disposition
However, they did not deconstruct "crime"
- were too vague, need specificity to make psychological sense
- "fear of crime focuses on a person's characteristic perception and evaluation of a particular type of event, notably crime"
35
What are opportunistic views of crime?
Cohen and Felson 1979 = Routine Activities Theory
1) likely offender
2) suitable target
3) absence of capable guardian or witnesses
Cornish and Clarke 1987 = Rational Choice Theory
36
What are ways we are unknowingly victimised?
- Environmental Pollution
- Cost of vadalism/theft passed onto us via rising prices
- links to insurance levels
- activities that are not called a crime e.g. deepfakes (yet)
- being lied to politically
37
What is the key point about the early approch of social psychology of acting in groups?
Conflict
- Post WW2
- How can we commit mass murder?
- What makes you hate a group?
- Conflict via competition
- Seeing group identity as a normal human outcome
38
Describe Sherif's 1954 "Robbers Cave Experiment"?
1) Group Formation
- randomly assign 22 boys into 2 groups (Eagles and Rattlers) and make them take part in team building activities to promote cohesion
2) Intergroup Introduction
- groups introduced via various activities such as meal times or baseball games
3) Intergroup Competition
- pitted against each other in games with prizes for the winner
4) Intergroup Conflict
- conflict began e.g. namecalling, vandalism, physicaly aggression
5) Conflict Resolution
- superordinate goals and allowing groups to work together to reduce conflict
39
Describe Differential Association Theory
Sutherland 1939
- criminal behaviour is learnt through social interactions with others who hold deviant values and norms
- criminal behaviour is not simply the result of an individual pathology or personality but is rather influenced by social factors and group dynamics
40
Describe Bandura 1977 Social Learning Theory
People learn from observing and imitating others, particularly those who are seen as role models or authority. Highlights the importance of social modelling and reinforcements in the development of criminal behaviour
41
Describe Neutralisation Theory
Matza 1964
- individuals who engage in crime use neutralisation techniques to justify actions
1) Denial of Responsibility = "it wasn't me" or "it wasn't my fault"
2) Denial of Injury = "it didn't hurt" or "they have insurance"
3) Denial of the Victim = "they deserved it"
4) Condemnation of Condemners = "you're just as bad"
5) Appeal to higher loyalties = "I did it to help"
- feel guilt so use these techniques to neutralise their moral responsibility
42
Describe Milgram's 1963 Obedience to Authority
Individuals can be influenced by group dynamics to engage in harmful behaviour. Followed the instructions of the experimenter. Power of authority figures and group pressure.
43
Describe Zimbardo 1971 Stanford Prison Experiment
Imprisonment demonstrates how social roles and group dynamics influence behaviour. The guard became abusive and authoritarian and the prisoners became passive and submissive even though they were all students enrolled at the Uni. Impact of situational factors and social roles in shaping behaviour
44
Describe Tajfel 1979 Social Identity Theory
- We derive part of our sense of self from the groups in which we belong
- Stereotyping is a normal cognitive process
- But this does mean we exaggerate differences between groups and similarities within
- Members of an ingroup will seel to find negatives of an outgroup to enhance their self image
Hogg and Abrams 1988
- Social Indentity theory can explain inter-group conflicts and other social phenomena
45
What is the difference between a mass murderer and a serial Killer
The timing and numbers!!!
46
What accounts a serial killer?
A person who murders 3 or more people over a month with a cooling down period between
- murders are separate events, driven by thrill or pleasure
- often lack empathy and guilt
- egocentric, maybe psychopaths
- employ a "mask of sanity" to appear charming
- more organised and planned than mass murderers
47
What accounts a mass murderer?
Dietz 1986 = wilful injury of 5 or more people, of who 3 are killed by a single offender in a single event
Fox and Levin 2002 = killing of 4 or more people by 1 or a few assailants within a single event, lasting a few minutes to several hours
Stone 2017 = generally dissatisfied people, poor social skills and few friends
48
How does Mass murder usually end?
With the death of the perpetrator either by suicide or by law enforcement
49
What are some characteristics of a mass murderer?
Stone
- 96.5% are male
- most are not clinically psychotic
- tend to be paranoid individuals with acute behavioural or social disorders
May possess some psychopathic traits (cruel, manipulative) but usually social misfits or loners triggered by some uncontrollable event
50
What is a Cult?
- Group or movement held together by a shared commitment to a charasmatic leader or ideology
- Has a belief system that has the answers to all of life's questions and offers a specific solution; which can only be ained by following the leaders rules
51
Who are the Manson Family?
- Messianic counterculture cult and commune, fuelled by sex and drugs in the backdrop of the "summer of love"
- approx 100 members at peak
- members were mainly well eductaed, middle class women
- Tate-LaBianca murders of 7 people in August 1969
- part of the apocalyptic prophecy or race war called "helter skelter"
52
Who were the Heaven's Gate Cult?
- In March 1997, police were given an anonymous tip and found 39 victims of mass suicide in a mansion. All were found lying peacefully in bed, dressed the same with plastic bags tied around their heads
- A week prior, the founder Marshall Applewhite released a video claiming a UFO following the Hale-Bopp comet would take them to another kingdom above
- In order to reach this UFO, they needed to shed themself of their earthly form and die
- Applewhite and 38 followers drank a mixture of drugs and alcohol to die and reach a higher existence
53
Who are the Order of the Solar Temple?
- Joseph Di Mambro would lead humanity to a different and better planet
- October 1994, 53 members in Canada and Sweden were murdered or committed suicide and the Temples set their bodies on fire
- They anticipated environmental apocalypse
54
Who are the Movement for the Restoration of the 10 Commandments of God?
- Fringe Catholic group in Uganda
- Turn of the millenium would all die
- When they didn't, people got suspicious so the Leaders created a 2nd Judgement Day
- In March, 300 followers (including 78 children) headed for a mass celebration
- Not fully a mass suicide as some were killed for not believeing in the judgement day
- Eventually mass graves were discovered, creating a death toll of 780
55
What was the People's Temple?
- In the 1970s, ran by self-styled prophet Jim Jones, established a socialist utopia community
- Nov 1978 = led hundreds of followers into a mass murder-suicide
- Some willing injested poison and others at gunpoint
- 909 were found dead, 1/3 were children
56
What is the Psychology behind cults?
- Attractive as they promote an illusion of comfort
- Satsify human desire for absolute answers
- Those with a low Self-Esteem more likely to be recruited
- New recruits are love-bombed
- Women are more likely to join a cult
- Many are likely to have rejected mainstream religion
- Promote them vs us mentality
- Leaders are masters of mind control
- Members often don't know they are in a cult
- Dangerous and lasting effects
57
Who is Lemkin and what did his research highlight?
Coined genocide meaning, genos = race/tribe and cide = killings
- lost nearly 50 relatives in the Holocaust
- "a coordinated plan of different actions aimed at the destruction of essential foundations of the life of national groups with the aim of annihilating the groups themselves"
- Father of the Genocide Convention = "the problem of genocide becomes as vital to the sociologist as the problem of disease to the physician. It calls for a diagnosis, cure and above all, prevention"
58
Why were the Nuremberg trials so important to understanding genocide?
First ever genocide prosecution
- Defined in the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide which became international law in 1951
- Any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy in whole or in part a national/ethnic/racial/religious group
1) killing members of the group
2) causing serious bodily or mental harm
3) Deliberatley inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction
4) Imposing means to prevent birth
5) Forcibly transferring children from 1 group to another
Helped lead the United Nations Genocide Convention 1948, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) and the Geneva Convention on the Laws and Customs of War (1949)
59
Issues with the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide's definition of genocide
There are groups outside of this definition such as killing street children in Brazil or feminicide in China
60
What are the 8 stages of Genocide?
1) Classification
- Us vs Them mentality, create distinguising features such as Hutus and Tutsis by height, eye size and noses
2) Symbolisation
- Forces groups to identify themselves, e.g. star of David or blue scarfs in Eastern zone of Cambodia
3) Dehumanisation
- 1 group views other as subhuman, Depersonalisation, Serbians called it "ethnic cleansing"
4) Organisation
- Carried out by the state or Terrorist group, e.g. Janjaweed militarians trained and armed by Sudanese gov
5) Polarisation
- Groups have been separated by society, e.g. Nuremberg laws forbidded inter-racial marriage
6) Preparation
- Victims are identified and separated, e.g. schools in Cambodia were transfored into extermination camps
7) Extermination
- Mass killing legally becomes genocide
8) Denial
- Cover up evidence, harm witnesses, alter stats or describe it as a civil war
61
What did Gilbert find when searching for a Nazi Personality?
3 Personality types in 22 Nazis, all classified as having a psychopathic personality
- Schizoid, Narcissistic, Paranoid
Took into account socio-culture
- Nazis raised in a culture thats primary value was deference to authority
Democratic leaders should be trained to as critical thinkers to avoid blind obedience
62
What did Kelley find when searching for a Nazi Personality?
Thematic Apperception Test found underlying personality will emerge and were not spectacular types
- They were aggressive, dominating, egotistical when given the opportunity to seize power
63
What did the Wechsler Bellewe IQ test find when searching for a Nazi Personality?
Used to see if Nazis could stand trial. The average was 128 which was considerred of superior intellect and 2.2% of population
64
What did the Rorschach's ink blot test when searching for a Nazi Personality?
Nazis were emotionally unstable and some had degenerative mental processes. Many were not psychopaths or criminally insane
65
What did Eichmann 1962 say when searching for a Nazi Personality?
"There is a need to draw a line between the leaders resposible and the people like me forced to serve as mere instruments in the hands of the leaders... I was not a responsible leader and as such do not feel myself guilty"
- Milgram 1961 happened at the same time as he was on trial and highlighted importance of large scale obidience
66
What did Staub conclude when researching Genocide?
Applied a range of psychological principles to an analysis of why groups engage in genocide
- Persistent difficult life conditions, Durkheim's anomie, Chicago School are catalysts as economic breakdown after war highlights social breakdown
- Must be combined with cultural factors like strong acceptance to hierarchy, antagonism towards outgroups and prior history with violence
- We scapegoap groups who which frustrations can be targtted to
67
Cohen's 2001 State of Denial links to genocide how?
Power psychological principle of not wanting to put yourself on the firing line, which is how ordinary members of the German public were living in denial as they both knew and didn't know what was going on
68
According to Yaccubian 2000, what are the reasons for neglect of genocide and mass murder?
1) Funding only for national levels, not international
2) Culture of localism forming relationships with local practioners to create social policy
3) Methods are not always appropriate to study and important to measure overseas
4) No history of studying this subject in recent history
69
What is the root cause of Terrorism?
- Lack of: democracy, rule of law, good governance, social justice
- Backing of illegitimate regimes
- High/rising distributive inequality
- Historical experience of violent conflict
- Support from groups using Terrorist means
- Vulnerabilities of modern democracy
- Failed safe havens outside of state control
70
What are Proximate causes of Terrorism?
- Escalating counter strategy
- Expectations of support groups
- Declining / rising of support
- Declining media coverage
- "Successful" rival groups
- Problems with internal group cohesion
- Group leaders personal image strategy
- De-esclating low intensity conflict
- Escalating policitcal conflict
- Enhance of new actor in existing conflict
71
What are Accelerators of Terrorism?
- Counter Terrorism campaigns calling for revenge or retaliation
- Huminliation of groups / supporters
- Threats
- Peace Talks
- Elections
- Symbolic Dates
72
What are Decelerators of Terrorism?
- Moderate counter campaigns using legitimate means
- Loss of charasmatic leaders / key resources / territory
- Essential concession towards Terrorist constituencies political demands
- Responsible media coverage
73
What are Precipitants of Terrorism?
- Risk assessments
- Logical preparations
- De-legitmation of the enemy
- Disappearance of key persons
- Rising interests in political targets
- Increase in internal violence
74
How does Radicalisation form?
Ground Floor = psychological interpretation of material conditions
First Floor = perceived options to fight unfair treatment
Second Floor = Displacement of Aggression
Third Floor = Moral Engagement
Fourth Floor = Solidification of categorical thinking and the perceived legitimacy of Terrorist organisations
Fifth Floor = The Terrorist act and side stepping inhibitatory processes
75
What causes Radicalisation?
No single root
- range of factors, and each differ in importance
76
How does Profiling differ for Terrorism?
Terrorists differ in age, race, class, family so motivations are also diverse. This remains a problem for 2 reasons:
1) Multifinality = 1 factor leads to several outcomes i.e. exposure to extremist media can cause acceptance, activity with anti- groups, self harm
2) Equifinality = same outcome from multiple predictors i.e. radical mindset came from economic troubles, tweets, political discontentment
77
What did Atran's 2010 work on subcultural elements find?
Examined the extent to those involved developed high self esteem based on patriotism, loyalty/commitment to transcendental ideas
- Whatever influence outside forces might have on the lives of potential extremists aren't affective when the values have become sacred to the individual
78
Research on Suicide Bombers
Elicit fear and mass panic to achieve a politically motivated goal and to gain supporters via attention. Used by military and insurgent groups throughout history
- No archetype = nationalistic, typically male but 15% were female, recruitment often by family/friends, motivation often revenge for a loved one, honour, religion, pressure or exploitation and seek to make their life significant
79
Describe Atran's work on the Devoted Actor
Unconditional cooperation and intractive conflict best understood by devoted actor vs rational actor conflict
- Devoted Actors motivated by sacred values and fusion with a group
- Willing to sacrifice yourself for the group due to blurred lines
- Belongingness, meaningfulness, significance
80
Describe Wolfsburg Cell
20 people travelled to Syria but there were 50 supporters in total. The people who went to Syria were men who met up in Wolfsburg Waffles. One of these men was a 23 year old from Portsmouth well known for tweeting. It was thought he was recruiting more people but instead the people who went were those he knew well
81
Application of Social Identity Theory (Tajfel and Turner, 1986) to Terrorism
Individuals experience collective identity based on group membership
- In group = share an identity via religions/nation/race whilst outgroup excluded
Berger 2019 = extremism = the belief that an ingroup success/survival can be better separated from the need for hostile action against an outgroup
82
Horgan's view on Deradicalisation
"social and psychological processes whereby an indivudal's commitment to and involvement in violent radicalisation is reduced to the extent that they are no longer at risk of involvement and engagement in violent activity"
83
Rabasa's view on deradicalisation
- Just as there are processes where an individual becomes radicalised, there are processes where an extremist can renounce violence, leave a group/movement and even rejects radical worldviews
- Senior analyst in RAND corporation
84
What is the empirical evidence for counter narratives?
Formers who were once radicalised but now involved in counter-terrorism
- Gartenstein-Ross = Jewish-American converted to radical Islam and charged for funding terrorist orgs now works within the Foundation for Defence of Democracies
- Benotman = former head of Libyan Terrorist group but then renouned violence to help reform those in prison and senior analyst turned director of Quilliam
85
What is the empirical evidence for Deradicalisation Programmes?
- Many examples in Nordic Countries (Exit-Model), Germany, Netherlands, Indonesia specifically for prisoners with Jihadist connections, Saudia Arabia (Kingdom's Programme) focuses on rehabilitation through religious education and counselling
- Columbia = suspended military trials and released prisoners to encourage rehabilitation
86
What is the prevailing opinion for Deradicalisation programmes?
Raises question if they left the group or it's ideas; disengagement?
- Prevailling opinion is that they do not leave the radical ideas behind, just the violent acts
- Many deradicalisation programmes do not necessarily aim to deradicalise but to seek people to disengage
- Disengagement is more cost-effective and should be prioritised
87
Resetting Priorities must address current realities
- Different kinds of terrorism will come and go
- still need to prevent, counter and disrupt it when it happens
- reduction of prevention investment
- no apparent strategies to address right-wing resurgence
- decreasing public faith in gov solution and scientific answers
- increasing polarisation and non-violent radicalisation
- return to simplistic ways of thinking about responses
88
What are the issues with definition of Stalking?
Nebulous crime which is difficult to define/legislate
- Home Office 1996 = not defined in civil or cirminal law but can be "broadly defined as a series of acts which are intended to, or inflict, harrassment to another person
- Unlike other crimes, doesn't involve 1 isolate event but a series of activities over a protracted period (like DV)
- Peristent nature makes it hard to eradicate
89
Is Stalking a new crime?
Often seen as a recent problem but countless examples throughout history
- Geographical / political freedom of women and the rise of modern technology has made it easier and more frequent
- 1997 Protection from Harassment Act
- Poor police and prosecution practices gave rise to the clarification of stalking as a criminal offence in the Prosecution of Freedoms Act 2012
- 2019 Stalking Protection Act brought in SPOs
90
What is the historical connotations of Stalking?
Originally linked to De Clerambault's Syndrome (Psychose Passionelle) and the DSMIV erotomania
- For women perps
But Spitzberg 2002 found 79% of perps are male and 75% of victims are female so historical reasoning is wrong
91
Example of Stalking: John Hinkley Jr
A man who had issues with depression and a history of making up fake girlfriends. After watching "Taxi Driver" gained an obsession with Jodie Foster and would follow her around the country, send her love letters / poems and repeatedly called her. In order to gain her attention, he tried to assasinate Reagan and ended up shooting and paralysing his Press Sec instead. He thought making his name in history would impress her
92
How can we identify Stalkers?
Sheridan and Davies 2010 = encompass a pretty much infinite range of behaviours targetted at one individual to another
CSEW = 2 or more incidents (causing distress/fear/alarm) of receiving obscene or threatening unwanted letters/emails/texts/calls, having had info placed on the internet about them, waiting or loitering around home/workplace or following/watching a current/former partner or family member
93
What is the issue with the US definition of Stalking?
Relies on the victim's sense of fear and belief they will come to physical harm.
- Very subjective
94
Why is Stalking sometimes seen as "playing hard to get"?
Becker et al 2021 = stalking is often romanticised, normalised or minimised through various institutions
Yonowitz and Yonowitz 2012 = media uses examples where it evokes a happy ending
Sinclair 2012 = Stalking culture, traditional sexual scripts of women saying no but meaning yes and men fighting for affection
McKeon et al 2015 = target secretly likes the attention or must have let the perp on or is imagining it
Hollander 2001 = mismatch between risk and fear, we fear a unknown stranger but greatest risk with previous/current intimate partner
95
How do we draw the line between Stalking and looking through someone's social media, for example?
Kennedy 2009 = interview with ppts about internet stalking
- going through FB to find info about 1 person is harmless, stalking is serious
- FB stalking is just getting info from one cite, it can become cyber stalking but needs to go deeper
- can be creepy or may just be unhealthy jealousy
96
Sheridan et al 2001a conducted a study to identify stalking. Even though not one behaviour received a unanimous decision, there was enough agreement to find behaviour generally called stalking
1) Classic Behaviours = following the target, constantly watching/spying on the target
2) Threatening Behaviours = death threats, confinement
3) Unpredictable Behaviours = continously acting in an uncontrollable/aggressive/insulting manner upon seeing target with another man
4) Attachment Behaviours = often purposefully visiting places which target frequents
97
Sheridan et al 2001 also found a number of non-stalking behaviours...
1) Courtship Behaviours = phoning after 1 meeting, agreeing with everything she says
2) Verbally Obscene Behaviours
3) Overbearing Behaviours = trying to acquiant targets friends/family to know her better, unwanted offers of help
98
What empirical support was found for Sheridan et al 2001a research on types of Stalking Behaviours?
Sheridan et al 2002 = replicated findings in British men
Jagessar and Sheridan 2004 = replicated in Trinidadian women
Suggests people can distinguish between stalking behaviours and people trying too hard
99
What are the issues with men noticing Stalking?
White et al 2002 = possible women stalking men goes unrecorded as men may not be able to recognise it or feel less threatened
Sheridan et al 2001b = men reported less intrusive experiences, 5% vs 24%
Purcell et al 2001 = duration/incidence of violence acts do not differ according to gender
100
What are the demographics for Stalking?
Purcell et al 2002 = 18-30 most vulnerable
- CSEW = 16-19
Sheridan and Davies 2010 = victims can be from all backgrounds, but more in high edcuated / professional workplaces
Budd and Mattinson 2000 = single students, particularly living in private accomodation
Pathe and Mullen 2002 = celebrities more likely to experience multiple stalkers
Mechanic et al 2002 = linked with a history of DV
101
Who is most likely to become a perpetrator of Stalking?
Meloy 1999 = high proportion in intimate relationship with victim
- Spitzberg 2002 = only 18% stalked strangers
- Meloy 2001 = prior sexual intimacy resulted in an 11 fold increase for potential violence
Sheridan et al 2001a = older and from a higher SES background
Sheridan and Davies 2010 = linked with Personality Disorders and Depression, but many don't have a psychiatric history
102
How does Attachment Theory link to Stalking?
Attachment = lasting psychological connectedness between human beings
- Focused on relationships between people, particularly long term
- Interested in separation anxiety of children with caregivers
- Attachment makes child close with the mother, increasing chance of survival so we are born with an innate drive
- Security developed if PCG is available, responsive, depdendable
103
What are the 4 main attachment types by Ainsworth 1970s and Main and Soloman 1986
Secure = distress when separated but joy when returned, comfortable seeking reassurance
Ambivalent = very distressed when left and not easily comforted, cannot depend on mother
Avoidant = shows no difference between parent and stranger, may avoid parent
Disorganised = all beh above, confused, may resist parent, inconsistent behaviour by PCG
104
How does the relationship you had as a child with your mother affect your adult relationships?
Young et al 2019 = failure to form secure attachments in early life can have a neg impact going forward
- People with a disorganised personality disorders often display attachment problems, possibly due to abuse/neglect/trauma
- Those who are securely attached in childhood tend to have a good self-esteem, strong romantic relationships, and the ability to self-disclose to others. Less depression and anxiety
105
What are the 4 attachment styles?
1) Secure = trusting, attuned to emotions, can communicate, cooperative
2) Anxious = sensitive NS, struggles to communicate, "acts out" when jealous
3) Avoidant-Dismissive = self reliant, downplays importance, vulnerable in high crisis
4) Avoidant-fearful = more dependent than the above, fears rejection, low self-esteem, high anxiety
106
What are Zona et al's 1998 typologies of Stalkers?
1) Erotomanic = delusional beliefs that the unattainable victim loves them, extreme attention seeking beh, more likely with female perps with high status men as targets with no previous history
2) Simple Obsessional = arises from either an intimate relationship or colleague, desire to maintain or start a relationship or an act of vengance for a perceived mistreatment
3) Love Obsessional = target is known to the stalker but no previous intimate history i.e. celebrities
107
What are Boon and Sheridan's 2001 typologies for Stalkers?
1) Ex-Partner = bitterness/hate, overt threats, recruitment of friends/family, anger, violence, property damange. Victim should avoid retaliation and relocate
2) Infactuation = target is "beloved" not "victim", persuasive of all thoughts/fantasy/future orientations, low risk of violence. We should carefully explain law and victims experience to perp to explore how to move on or relocate
3) Delusional Fixation = present orientation, mental health, previous history of violence or self harm. Refer to a psychiatrist
4) Sadistic = target is prey and needs to be destroyed, gain power, gaslight, violence. Law enforcement involved
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What are Mohandie et al's 2006 RECON Model (typology) for Stalking?
1) Intimate = most dangerous, violent, substance misuse but not psychiatric, risk of reoffending, pre/post breakup, insecure attachment. Probation and Parole supervision needed
2) Acquaintance = less dangerous, still a risk of violence or property damage, long lasting but sporadic, intense desire to initiate relationship. Needs both law enforcement and mental health treatment (i.e. link to BPD in women)
3) Public Figure = higher proportion of women perps and male victims, older, less violent, psychotic, ask for help, tends to be planned and include a weapon. Needs professional protection and Psych intervention
4) Private Stranger = mental illness, suicide, less likely to have previous violent history or substance misuse, wants communication with target, still a risk of violence, reoffending is low (25%). Needs psychiatric treatment and aggressive prosecution
109
How does an intimate relationship affect stalking?
Sheridan and Davies 2010 = history of DV is most important risk factor
Davies et al 2000 = relationship where stalking arises are characterised by a range of abusive / violent behaviours
Mohandie et al 2006 = perps draw on a wider range of tactics that are influenced by their knowledge of them
Rosenfeld 2004 = increased likelihood of threats and use of violence
McFarlane et al 1999 = 76% of intimate partner homicide victims were stalked prior to being killed
Melton 2007 = often sttarts during relationship but the end of the relationship is a risk factor
110
Describe Dutton 1985 Nested Ecological Model for Stalking
Individual (ontogenetic) = personality traits, risk taking, substance abuse, erotomania, delusions, high education, attachment
Interpersonal (microsystem) = peer relations, influence, unstable relationship, conflict, abuse of partner, controlling, isolation
Organisational (Mesosystem) = institutions, communities, unemployment
Societal (macrosystem) = politics, values, patriarchy, stalking culture (Dixon and Bowen, 2018)
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What happens to the reporting of Stalking?
Baum et al 2009 = victims don't contact the police due to fear of retaliation and not being believed, nearly 50% of victims were dissatisfied eith CJS response and 20% said no further action was taken
Logan and Walker 2017 = law enforcement and victim service workers often don't perceive it as dangerous
Taylor-Dunn et al 2021 = victims often told nothing the police can do as no offence has been committed
Logan et al 2006 = 98% of female victims felt police intervention wouldn't create positive consequences
Melton 2005 = victims often prefer an informal response from the police such as a conversation with the perp
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Example of Stalking - Lauren McClusky
October 2018 murdered by her ex-boyfriend before he took his own life
- was on the phone to her mum in campus parking lot as he came at her with a gun to try to kidnap her
- had previously reported him to campus security after breaking up due to him lying about his name, age and registration as a sex offender
- stalked her, went to her friends, lured her out the house with fake messages
- campus secutiry stated that she seemed more angry by the fact he may leak nude photos than in fear
113
Boehnein et al 2020 found what when looking at stalking and the court proceedings?
Perception that victims are crazy
- beh plays into DV
- general pubic lack education on stalking and fear
- when victim finally reaches court they are at their wits end so plays into "crazy"
- whilst the perp looks cool and in control
- keep all messages, as deleting files can tamper with evidence
114
How can we intervene with Stalkers?
Boon and Sheridan 2001 = legal intervention might curtail activities of "infactuation harasser" or "sadistic stalker" as a challenge
Mullen et al 2000 = similarly with predatory stalkers
115
Prescriptive vs non-prescriptive legislation
Finch 2002 = anti-stalking laws frequently require the victim to display neg effects of stalking or else require that a reasonable person would be likely to experience neg consequences in the same situation
Sheridan and Davies 2010 = perps often crafty and circumvent prescriptive legislation, creating ways to continue to harass
116
What is Cyber Stalking?
Unwanted emails, ordering goods/servies in targets name, posting material, threatening/doxing, monitoring
- Sheridan and Grant 2007 = more than 74% of cyber victims originally came into contact with perp on the internet
- Messing et al 2020 = little accountability / protection from social media platforms
- Roberts 2019 = AI often fails to recognise beh due to subjective nature of relationships, consent and image ownership
117
What are some treatments for Stalkers?
- Psychotherapeutic interventions can be helpful, particularly for delusional stalkers
- Kropp et al 2002 = treatment should have a preventative aim rather than a soley rehabilitation
- aim to reconnect stalker to wider social world
- Boon and Sheridan 2001 = this should not be instead of police intervention, particularly for teenage or ex-partner stalkers
118
What is the definion of rape?
Section 1 of the Sexual Offences Act 2003
1) a person (a) commits an offence if:
- he intentionally penetrates the vagina, anus or motuh of another person (b) with his penis
- does not consent to the penetration
- a does not reasonably believe that b consented
2) whether a belief is reasonable to be determined having regard to all the circumstances, including steps a has taken to ascertain whether b consents
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What are some issues with the legal definition of rape?
- Popova 2019 = creates a tier system of sexual offences, implying some acts are worse than others
- Smart 2002 = the law is a blunt tool seeking yes/no answers, does not look at lived experiences or encompass complexity of human sexuality
- No Penis, No Rape?
120
What is the scope of female sexual offending?
1) against known children
2) in intimate/dating relationships
3) by adolescents
4) in institutional settings
5) against unknown child or adult (very rare)
121
What is the prevelance of female sexual offending?
ONS 2018a = CSEW found victims of rape/SA reported a male perp in 99% of all cases
MOJ 2016 = 3% of all arrests in England and Wales 2015-16 were female
ONS 2018b = 1.6% of offenders who appear in a magistrates court are female
MOJ 2016 = lower proportion of convicted (46%) than male counterparts (55%)
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When looking at female sexual offending, what did Williams and Bierie 2015 find?
Analysis of 802,150 recorded offences in 37 US states between 1991-2011
- 5% had female perps
- 61% of that 5% were sole offenders, 32.5% had a male co-offender, 5.6% had multiple female offenders, 1.8% had mixed gender
- Coffending with a male is 3x more likely than for male perps
- Gender made a difference on type of offence = male victim, own children, 4x more common in prison
- 16% arrested vs 29%
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What have self report studies about female sexual offending found?
- Feinhelhar 1984 = 5% of female and 20% of male child sexual abuse victims were abused by women
- Reinhart 1987 = of 189M and 189F child sexual abuse victims, 4.2% of men and 2.1% of women were abused by women
- Risin and Koss 1987 = 42.7% female perps in US colleges
- Fromuth and Burkhart 1987 = 75% of female perps in US colleges
- NSPCC 2015 = 9% of all 11,398 childline counselling sessions in 2014=15 had female perps
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What are some barriers to recongising sexual offending in women?
- Societal perceptions of female sexuality (Denov, 2004a)
- Criminal laws
- Victim Under-reporting
- Professional attitudes
- Linguistic impossibilities (Barnes, 2008)
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What are some reasons for barriers in female sexual offending?
- Larson and Maison 1987 = culturally we struggle to see women (particularly mothers) as sexual at all
- Jackson 1978 = sexual scripts characterised by an active male and passive female
- Byers and O'Sullivan 1998 = female sexual aggression and initiation considerred imcompatible with normative sexual scripts
- Barnes 2008 + Girsskic 2002 = phallocentric understanding of sex and sexuality
- Ford 2006 = women perceived as incapable of inflicting sexual harm
- Johnson and Beech 2007 = RMA doesn't sig predict sexual offending, but a male sample
- Nelson 1994 = women's sexual violence may be romanticised or eroticised
126
What were the findings of Loxton and Groves 2022 when looking at male victims of female sexual offending?
1) "Being a man" or sexual function
2) De-escalation of crime
3) Male rape myths
4) Homophobic rationale
127
What did Hooks 2004 find when looking at female sexual offenders and race?
Widespread sexual abuse of black boys receives no attention
- often to encouraged to engage in sexual acts with an older woman by men who think its cool
- having sex with an older women is an acceptable rite of passage
128
Meenagh 2020 found men explained there was an impossibility to say no, what were the reasons why?
- Women would rub it into men's face and say they passed on an opportunity
- They don't really get a choice if a woman wants to
- Women don't understand a man saying no e.g. think they are playing hard to get
- Women can be too persistent and need physical force to remove
129
Gustafsson-Wood 2017 said the media perpetuates female sexual offending by?
Dismissing the male pov and make the audience think the man should be grateful
130
How does female offending challenge exisiting models of sexual offending?
1) Essentialist conceptions of sex
- Fuss 1989 = a belief is the true essence, most reducible and unchanging
2) Sex role socialisation theory
- Girshian 2002 = views violence as a learned beh, males are conditioned to be aggressive and win at all costs but women aren't?
3) Feminist gender-based analysis of violence
131
What are Hetherton 1999's 3 key myths for sexual offending?
1) Sexual behaviour by women is gentle, nurturing, subtle and not serious
2) Sexual abuse by a woman is not harmful
3) Women who sexually abuse do it under male coercion
132
Hayes and Carpenter 2013 + Peter 2006 said what about female sex offenders?
Limited constructions of female sexual offenders
- mad
- bad
- victims
133
What knowledge about female sexual offending is consistent?
- Higher prevelance of co-offending
- Very high rates of previous sexual/physical victimisation
- Greater evidence of denial or cognitive distractions
- Evidence of grooming
134
What knowledge of female sexual offenders is inconsistent?
- Age / onset of cessation
- Movement between categories
- Whether co-offending is coerced or Male/Female induced
- Role of Psychiatric disorders
- Age / gender of victims
- If sexual / emotional gratification is sought
135
What are Saradijan 1996 typologies of female offenders?
- Initially abuse young children
- Abuse adolescents
- Initally coerced into abuse by men
- Atypical perpetrator
136
What are Matthews et al 1991 typologies of female sexual offenders?
- Teacher/loner
- Intergenerationally predisposed offender
- Male-Coerced
137
What are some challenges facing male sexual offence victims?
- Difficulties recognising abuse (Ford 2006, Denov 2004a)
- Minimalisation, denial and silenced
- Exclusive legal definition and language
- Social stigma and accentuated fear of disbelief
- Pressure to take pride/enjoyment from sexual encounters with older females
- Abuse disguised as maternal care
- Poor practioner response (Denov 2004a, 2003b)
- Repulsion / disgust
- Eroticisation
- "Good" forensic eveidence biased towards male perps
138
What did Denov 2004a find about practitioner perceptions and responses?
Police Interviews
- training assumes male perps and female victims
- lack of confidence regarding female offending
- "macho" context and culture
- reinforcement of "real rape" and sexual scripts
- female offenders dichotimised into either harmless or unfeminine others
Psychiatrist Interviews
- lack of training
- female clients seen as second class
- reinforcement of traditional scripts
- suggestion it is enjoyable
- belief that it is harmless, they are victims themselves, psychotic or not "real" women
139
What key themes did Hayes and Barker 2014 find in media reports of female child sexual offenders?
- Demonisation
- Sensationalisation
- Minimalisation and Mitigation
- Medicalisation / Pathologisation
- Romanticisation
- Women as nurturers
140
What have the media said about female sexual offenders?
- Downing 2014 = Dennehy was a statistically unusual case and that it was rare for a female recreational killer who had sexual sadism and thrill seeking motives
- Downing 2013 = sexual murderesses not represented the in the same ambivalently heroris terms as men, but this may be changing
- Yardley 2014 = the media can create problems as it codes representations of women
141
What are the 2 categories for Offender Profiling?
1) FBI Style profiling
2) Statistical Profiling
142
How did Thomas Bond help Profiling?
Likely to be the first recorded person to use profiling
- Described features of Jack the Ripper based on crime scene info, previous reports and post mortems
- Identified physical and psychological attributes
143
How did Walter Langer contribute to Profiling?
Wrote a report on Hitler for the US Office of Strategic Services
- Described him as suffering from neuroses, hysteria, paranoia, Schizophrenia and Oedipal Tendencies
- He had an admiration/envy to his father's masculine power and a contempt for his mother's weakness
- Also said he would commit suicide if war turned against him
- Profile now called "Profile of Adolf Hitler"
144
How did James Brussel contribute to Profiling?
Gave police info about the Mad Bomber, leading to Metesky's arrest and highlighted value to the FBI
- suggested he was a former emoplyee with a grudge as many bombs were set off near Edison's Company
- analysed threatening letters and crime scene info to create a profile = male, middle-aged, single, heavy set, lives with sibling
- profile went public and then resulted in a clerk being singled out
145
Who introduced profiling to the FBI?
Teten and Mullany
- In 1970s, FBI investigated personality, behaviour, crimes and motivations of serial killers
146
Explain the example of Susan Jaegar in FBI Profiling
Kidnapping and Murder of 7 year old girl in 1973
- No physical evidence left or ransom
- FBI profile = young, male, white, likely to be a loner, average intelligence, killed for sexual gratification
- Someone contacted the FBI and suggested David Meirhofer but had no evidence
- Police thought offender would try to get in contact with those involved so told Susan's parents to keep a tape recorder by the phone
- 1 year later, Meirhofer called and cried and met with the parents in person but neither gained enough info
- Called again and this gave reason to obtain a warrant where they found "souvenirs" of her and other victims
- Fist serial killer to be caught using FBI Profiling
147
After the case of Susan Jaeger, how did Profiling change?
By 1986, FBI offender profilers were reportedly being asked to provide advice in 600 investigations
- However, their efforts were often described negatively as a combination of brainstorming, intuition and educated guesswork
FBI work did highlight that in order to effectively contribute to an investigation, research needs to be conducted in relation to offender/the offence. This subsequently developed some classification systems (Douglas et al 2013)
148
What is the FBI Profiling Process?
1) Data Assimilation
- collect info from police reports, pathologists reports, crime scene photos, witnesses, time/nature of the offence, any "Signatures" e.g. picquerism (sexual pleasure from stabbing/cutting others), submission (multiple wounds causing victim to submit), degradation (leaving them in public) or planning (no evidence left)
2) Crime Scene Classification
- Interview offender and review case info to see if it is classified as Organised vs Disorganised
3) Crime Scene Reconstruction
- understanding events as a dynamic process involving a minimum of 2 people and maybe others (witnesses)
- info from 1 is vital and sequence of events in important
4) Profile Generation
- hypotheses formed may relate to psychological, demographic, lifestyle, behavioural characteristics
149
What are characteristics of an Organised Crime?
- HIghly intelligent
- Socially competent
- Neat Appearance
- Follows the news
- Decent car and may travel to crime scene
- Employed father
- Inconsistent childhood discipline
- Carefully planned
- Victim / weapon chosen in advance
- Escape planned
- Evidence moved
150
What are some characteristics of a Disorganised crime?
- Average / low intelligence
- Lacks social skills
- Untidy appearance
- No interest in the news
- Lives / works close to the crime scene
- Father has unstable employment
- Harsh childhood discipline
- Sponataneous and Impulsive
- Victim and Weapon chosen randomly
- Escape not planned
- Weapon left
151
Why has the FBI approach received criticism?
- Misrepresentation of psychological theories and concepts
- A lack of empirical evidence and grounding
- Methodological weaknesses
152
What is an empirical weakness of the FBI approach?
Alison et al (2003) analysed 21 offender profiles used in major criminal investigations and 80% of claims were ambiguous or unsubstantiated
153
How did Statistical Profiling come to be?
Around the same time as the FBI started developing their approach, Prof David Canter in UK was approached by police to give advice regarding a series of rapes/murder in London
- Police had already linked crimes to a common perps based on blood typing and surviving victim reports but wanted advice on the offender's behaviour
- Canter began by listing all the actions that had occured in every crime and showed that sometimes the offender was alone but sometimes with an acomplice
- Consistencies were found in some behaviours e.g. approaching victim, bound/detained victim, discussion
- Mapped out the offences in order of occurence and was able to roughly estimated where they lived
- Preliminary profile was surprisingly accurate as 1505th of the 2000 possible suspects matched the profile and was the only one who lived in the estimated area
- John Duffy was arrested after a large-scale surveillance operation
154
How did Canter's Statistical Profiling differ from FBI?
Canter saw the need to ground profiling in scientific research
155
What did early work of Statistical Profling include?
Geographical Profling
- algorithms ("distance decay functions") assume that the further away an offender is from home, they less crimes they will commit
- "Buffer Zone" = area between the home and location where crimes are less likely to be committed
- "Smallest Space Analysis" = plot associations between characteristics of the crime scene on a diagram (common in centre and uncommon on periphery) so major segments can be identified
156
What is Behavioural Investigative Advice?
The Association of Chief Police Officers changed offender profiling to this term as in the UK, OP had been increasingly recognised as a narrow definition, frequently misunderstood and governed by popular myths
- Involves more than making inferences about the offender characteristics
- Assists with making informed decisions in different stages in the investigation
- Offers support in terms of: crime scene assessment, hypotheses/suspect generations, linking crimes, offender background assessment, suspect prioritisation, interviewing advice, risk assessments
157
What is the background to the Polygraph test?
Developed in the 1920s-30s and based on the premise that offenders are fearful of being caught out
- Sensors detect bodily responses such as repsiration, BP, sweaty hands
- Draws lines on a chart based on these responses e.g. rapid breathing = frequent wave patterns
- Gougler et al 2011 = many types of Polygraph
158
What is the Relevant/Irrelevant Test Polygraph?
- Yes/No Qs about an event
- Some of which are relevant/critical and some are irrelevant
- Guilty suspect should experience increased reaction to Qs related to the crime but innocent have no difference
159
What is the Control Question Technique Polygraph?
- Examiner becomes familiar with the case and invites suspect to a pre-test to allow opportunity to discuss their side of events
- Pre-test informs the types of Qs asked
- 3 Types = Relevant (directly), Control/Comparison (refer to previous misdeeds which relate to crime), Irrelevant (neutral)
- Guilty suspects should have greater concern over the relevant Qs than control as they pose the greatest threat
- Innocent more stressed about Control/Comparison as bad answers will make the examiner think bad of them and make them seem more guilty
160
What is the Concealed Information Test Polygraph?
- Series of multiple choice questions
- 1 option is directly related but the rest are irrelevant
- "What colour was the knife handle; red, green or black?"
- Answer to Critical Q is only known to the perp and officers in charge
- Physical responses measured; rises = guilty on critical
161
Evaluation of Polygraphs
Good = been used in at least 70 countries worldwide
Bad
- Reviews have shown little evidence to support reliability (NRCotNAiA and Lin et al 2021)
- Hans and Amato 2007 = audio recorded Qs resulted in a more accurate response rate as examiner can skew responses
- Gudjonsson et al 2021= not accurate enough to base a criminal case due to the likelihood of False Pos/Neg
162
What did Ekman 1992 say about non-verbal cues?
Many things need our attention at any given moment, so we are unlikely to be able to focus on them all
163
What has research found out about Body Movements?
- Vrij 2008 = liars more likely to decrease their movements, not increase (fidgit) like popular myth. 64% decreased
- Vrij et al 2019 = might be because lying requires larger "cognitive load" so cannot attend to body language as much
- Nortje and Tredoux 2019 = or may be due to liars knowing common myths so doing the opposite to avoid attention
164
What has research found out about Particular Facial Expressions?
- Ekman and Friesen 1969 = one of the best examples of "leakages" among liars
- Ekman 1992/2009 = tend to have more asymmetrical/one-sided expressions, display quicker onset of emotion, smile doesn't involve they eyes, eyebrows don't move as much when sad
- Ekman 1992 / Vrij 2008 = there are ID and some non-verbal cues are linked to strong emotions
165
Evaluation of Non-Verbal Cues
Good
- Willis and Torodov 2006 = we make quick judgements about people based on facial reaction
- Stewart et al 2009 = so not surprising facial expressions affect perception of deception
Bad
- Zloteanu et al 2018 = however, people are not very accurate at determining truth from deception using FE
- Must consider othr methods which are based on the fact lying is a verbal process
166
What is Statement Validity Analysis?
- Based on Undeutsch Hypothesis (Stellar 1989) = truthful and untruthful accounts differ
- Assess credibility of a person's verbal account
- Carrying out Criteria Based Content Analysis to assess the presence of 19 criteria
167
What are the 19 Criteria of Criteria Based Content Analysis?
Logical Presention of info (innocent = more logical)
Unstructured Production (innocent = tell a story, not worry if not chronological)
Quality of Details (innocent = provide more)
Contextual Embedding (innocent = explain context / incorporate circumstance)
Descriptions of Interactions (innocent = describe interactions)
Reproduction of Convo (innocent = reproduce snippets)
Unexpected Complications (innocent = talk about side issues)
Unusual or Superfluous details (innocent = )
Details Misunderstood (innocent = mention things they don't understand)
Related External Associations (innocent = report unessential but related details)
Accounts of Subjective Material (innocent = may refer to their own / others metal state)
Attribution of Perps Mental State (innocent = may talk about perp's mental state)
Spontaneous Corrections (innocent = make corrections unprompted)
Admitting Lack of Memory (innocent = more likely to express concern over not remembering)
Raising Doubts about own Testimony (innocent = anticipate objections against veracity)
Self Deprication (innocent = mention unfavourable, self incriminating details)
Pardoning the Perp (innocent = make excuses, not blame them, feel sympathy)
Details about Characteristics of the offence = needs to be evalled by an expert. Does the Person describe feelings/events typically?
168
Evaluation of Criteria Based Content Analysis?
Good
- Hauch et al 2017 = meta analytic research indicates a reasonable degree of reliability
- Masip 2017 + Oberlader et al 2016 = distinguish liars from truthtellers better than chance, up to 70% accuracy
Bad
- Overall studies find inconsistent results on accuracy
169
What did Stromwell and Granhag 2003 find about F2F interviews
Police/Prosecutors/Judges all believed that an interogator could detect deception better F2F than on a video
- However, found observers were more accurate as there is less cognitive load (Stromwell and Granhag 2001)
170
What did Stromwell and Granhag 2003 find about body movements?
Prosecutors/Judges believed it was not a sign of lying but Police did
- Previous studies found no body movements was a sign of lying
171
What did Stromwell and Granhag (2003) find when looking at eye aversion?
Prosecutors/Judges thought no difference by Police thought liars tended to avoid eye contact
- However, no sig difference in gaze aversion of P/J correct (Vrij 2000)
172
What did Stromwell and Granhog (2003) find about Vocal Pitch?
Police/Prosecutors/Judges thought it made no difference
- However, found an increase when lying (Villar et al 2012)
173
What did Stromwell and Granhog (2003) find when looking at details?
Police/Prosecutors/Judges thought liars provided less details and they were correct
174
What is the Panopticon?
Bentham = prison design with 1 singular tower watching all cells, constant surveillance creates self-regulation
- Classicism = humans freely choose to commit crime and should be punished in proportion
- Humans are a rational calculator
175
Who is Goffman?
- Look at symbolic quality of human acts
- Questionned modern concern of science, rationality and causation
- People are actors and shaped by the people they are with
- Used experience from his wife's mental health
176
Facts about Eyewitnesses
- Better at identifying people in a line up of their own race
- Intense pressure for a prolonged period did not lead to accurate recall
- Weapon Effect - if weapon present, pay more attention to weapon than the perp
- In a show-up, intoxicated individuals more likely to make a false identification is suspect isn't there, but not more likely if suspect is there
177
How is the FBI Profiling system Bottom-Up?
By getting into the mind of the offender by using empathy and using previous cases as evidence to make subjective comparisons. Interviews captured offenders
178
How is Statistical Profling Top-Down?
Comparison of crime scene with statistical research into other crimes. Judgements are based on correlations and analysis
