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CMHL1001 > Exam Revision > Flashcards

Exam Revision Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the 5 steps of EBP?

A

1: Ask - convert information needs into answerable questions
2: Acquire - track down best evidence to answer these questions
3: Appraise - critically appraise validity and usefulness of evidence
4: Apply - implement evidence into clinical practice
5: Evaluate - evaluate performance

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2
Q

What is the difference between primary and secondary research?

A

Primary research is findings from a single study.

Secondary research reports synthesised findings from a range of studies.

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3
Q

What 5 questions need to be asked when assessing the quality of a study?

A

1: Who wrote the paper?
2: Are the title and abstract appropriate and informative?
3: Was the research design appropriate to the question?
4: Why was the study needed?
5: Do the results answer the question?

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4
Q

Define qualitative research

A

Research that begins with an intention to explore a particular research area, then uses data to generate a hypothesis. Qualitative research utilises non-numerical data.

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5
Q

Define quantitative research

A

Research that begins with a hypothesis, then uses numerical data to draw conclusions.

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6
Q

What are the levels of evidence?

A

I: Systematic reviews of RCTs
II: RCTs
III: (1)Pseudo-RCTs/(2)Cohort/(3)Case-control
IV: Cross-sectional/Case series/Correlational
V: Anecdotes

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7
Q

When is PICO used and what question is asked?

A 
PICO stands for:
Population
Intervention
Comparison
Outcome
It asks: Is there are relationship between INTERVENTION and OUTCOME when compared to COMPARISON in POPULATION?
It is used for quantitative studies.
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8
Q

When is PE(C)O used and what question is asked?

A 
PE(C)O stands for:
Population
Exposure
Comparison (if relevant)
Outcome
It asks: Is there a relationship between EXPOSURE and OUTCOME when compared to COMPARISON in POPULATION?
It is used for quantitative studies.
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9
Q

When is PICo used and what question is asked?

A 
PICo stands for:
Population
Interest
Context
It asks: What is the INTEREST of POPULATION in CONTEXT?
It is used for qualitative studies.
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10
Q

What is allocation bias?

A

Differences between treatment and control conditions at the start of the experiment.

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11
Q

What is detection bias?

A

Differences in how the treatments and control groups are assessed or measured.

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12
Q

What is performance bias?

A

Events other than intended treatment happening during the experiment.

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13
Q

What is attrition bias?

A

Dropout rates causing unwanted differences in participant characteristics between groups.

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14
Q

What is measurement bias?

A

Outcomes measured inaccurately.

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15
Q

What sampling methods fall under probability sampling?

A

Simple random: every participant has an equal chance of selection
Systematic random: systematically chosen from a list
Stratified random: population divided into strata, then simple or systematic random
Cluster: divide participants into clusters, randomly sample some clusters
Multistage: primary populations divided into sub-populations

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16
Q

What sampling methods fall under non-probability sampling?

A

Convenience: recruiting participants through convenience
Snowball: identifying someone who meets inclusion criteria and asking them to recommend others
Purposive: finding cases that provide rich information about the research area
Quota: participants chosen according to pre-specified quotas

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17
Q

What are the two types of sampling error?

A

Random: under/overrepresentation of certain groups
Systematic: inconsistencies/errors in sampling frame

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18
Q

What is the percentage of scores in normal distribution?

A

68% scores fall within 1 SD of mean
95% scores fall within 2 SD of mean
99% scores fall within 3 SD of mean

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19
Q

What is negatively skewed distribution?

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A

Where the mean is lower than the median and mode.

20
Q

What is positively skewed distribution?

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A

Where the mean is higher than the median and mode.

21
Q

What is Type I error?

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A

False positive - the null hypothesis is wrongly rejected. Here, the p-value would be >0.05

22
Q

What is Type II error?

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A

False negative - the alternative hypothesis is wrongly rejected. Here, the p-value would be <0.05

23
Q

What are the levels of measurement? Provide an example for each.

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A

Nominal: classifies people, place, objects or events into named groups (eg: male and female)
Ordinal: records rank order of items in a set (eg: gold, silver, bronze)
Interval: every point on the scale is separated by the same amount (eg: temperature)
Ratio: same as intervals, except 0 is defined as nothing (eg: weight)

24
Q

What are the two types of measurement error?

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A

Random: affects only the variation around the mean, affects SD.
Systematic: affects the mean, does not affect SD.

25
Define p-values.
p-values indicate the probability that the result has occurred by chance. p<0.05 indicates the result is statistically significant; the null hypothesis should be rejected and the alternative hypothesis accepted. p>0.05 indicates the results are not statistically significant; the null hypothesis should be accepted and the alternative hypothesis rejected.
26
What are confidence intervals?
For mean difference: if CI crosses 0, the results are not statistically significant For RR/OR: if CI crosses 1, the results are not statistically significant
27
What is Relative Risk?
If RR = 1, the risk in exposed is equal to the risk in unexposed. If RR > 1, the risk in exposed is greater than the risk in unexposed. It should be written as: "The risk in the exposed is x times greater than the risk in the unexposed." If RR < 1, the risk in exposed is less than risk the risk in unexposed. This number should be converted to a percentage: (1 - RR) x 100 and written as "The risk in the exposed is x% less than the risk in the unexposed."
28
What is Odds Ratio?
If OR = 1, the risk in exposed is equal to the risk in unexposed. If OR > 1, the risk in exposed is greater than the risk in unexposed. It should be written as: "The risk in the exposed is x times greater than the risk in the unexposed." If OR < 1, the risk in exposed is less than risk the risk in unexposed. This number should be converted to a percentage: (1 - OR) x 100 and written as "The risk in the exposed is x% less than the risk in the unexposed."
29
What are the 3 necessary factors when determining correlation?
Direction (r-value) Strength (r-value) Significance (p-value)
30
When analysing r-value, what are the numbers for each level of strength?
``` 1 or -1 = perfect +/-0.75 to +/-0.99 = strong to very strong +/-0.5 to +/-0.75 = moderate to strong +/-0.25 to +/-0.5 = weak to moderate +/-0.01 to +/-0.25 = weak ```
31
Name and describe the 7 ethical principles.
Autonomy: patients are free to determine their own actions Beneficence: acting to benefit humankind Justice: obligation to treat fairly Non-maleficence: avoiding/minimising harm Respect: respect for human dignity Confidentiality: maintenance of privileged information, including the right to privacy and anonymity Veracity: obligation to tell the truth
32
Name the qualitative research methodologies.
Ethnography: study of cultures and people Phenomenology: focuses on participants' lived experiences and their interpretation of these experiences Grounded theory: starts with no preconceptions and develops ideas as data is collected and analysed about an idea of interest Case studies: clear definition of the case being researched and behaviours explored.
33
Name the qualitative research methods.
Interviews (in-depth or semi-structured) Focus groups Document analysis Participant observation
34
Define mixed-methods research.
The planned mixing of quantitative and qualitative components within a single study.
35
What are the types of mixed-methods studies?
- Convergent: qualitative and quantitative arms are run concurrently but separately, then the results are converged through analysis and interpretation and the results are reported together (eg: questionnaire and focus group data used to draw conclusions) - Sequential: one arm is conducted first and the data is collected, then the other. Results usually reported separately (eg: results from a focus group informing the questions used on a survey) - Multiphase: using qualitative and quantitative study designs to answer the same question in populations with different sizes (eg: teachers and students) - Embedded: combination of qualitative and quantitative methods throughout the study (eg: survey with standard and open-ended questions)
36
What does Clinical Judgment involve in EBP?
- Integrated care pathways (combining evidence-based recommendations with the realities of local services) - Clinical experience
37
What does Scientific Evidence involve in EBP?
- Clinical guidelines (eg: standards for practice) | - Quality evidence
38
What do Patient Values and Preferences involve in EBP?
- Patient-reported outcome measures (PROMS) - Decision aids - Option grids
39
Describe RCTs.
Participants are randomised, and a baseline and follow-up measures are taken. The treatment and control groups are separate but can be either parallel or crossover. This is an experimental design.
40
Describe Quasi Experimental Trials (also known as Pseudo-RCTs).
Similar to RCT but does not involve randomisation, and the study population is divided into groups based on similar characteristics. This is an experimental design.
41
Describe Cohort studies.
Where an entire group is examined and followed up over many points in time. Can be prospective or retrospective. This is an observational design.
42
Describe Case-Control studies.
Involves a case group (who have developed outcome) and a control group. Always retrospective. This is an observational design.
43
Describe Cross-sectional studies.
Descriptive study of a group at one point in time, often using surveys or questionnaires. This is an observational design.
44
Describe Correlational design.
Investigates a relationship between IV and DV but does not control for confounding variables. This is an observational design.
45
Describe Case series design.
Investigates groups of similar presenting cases with no control group. This is an observational design.
46
Describe anecdotal evidence.
Medical practitioners/subject matter experts reporting personal observations or opinions. This is an observational design.

CMHL1001 (1 decks)

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