Exam Three Flashcards
(95 cards)
1
Q
Five Dev. Tasks of Adolescence
A
- Accept full-grown body and changes of puberty
- Acquire adult ways of thinking
- Develop more mature ways of relating to peers of both sexes - less gender segregation
- Consolidate an identity - developing a secure sense of who you are
- Attain greater independence from the family
2
Q
puberty def
A
the set of biological processes that change the immature child into a sexually mature person → sexual maturity to reproduce
3
Q
puberty timing
A
GIRLS = 10-15 y.o. BOYS = 11.5-17 y.o.
4
Q
growth spurt for each sex
A
- GIRLS = start spurt earlier, often age 10. Lasts about 2.5 years. Often grows 8-10 inches in height.
- Boys start spurt later, around age 12.5, and grow for a longer period of time, so they may add 12-13 in. of height
5
Q
major changes in overall body growth
A
• Reverse of cephalocaudal trend - the feet and legs often grow first, then the torso
• Increase in appetite
• Increase in size & activity of oil-producing glands - causing acne, and sweat glands=body odor
o Girls add more fat than boys - often in arms and legs
o Boys gain more muscle strength than girls
6
Q
primary vs. secondary sexual characteristics
A
PRIMARY : involve reproductive organs directly
SECONDARY : external physical changes that help distinguish M & F (breasts, facial hair)
7
Q
general changes
A
- Increases in levels of androgens and estrogens for girls and boys, but levels are sex-specific
- Boys get more androgens like testosterone → leads to muscle growth, gains in body size, sex characteristics
- Girls get more estrogens - cause breasts, uterus, and vagina to mature, fat to accumulate, regulate menstrual cycle
8
Q
menarche
A
(first menstruation) - occurs late in sequence, typically around age 12.5 (can be 9.5-16.5 and around ~100 lbs. for it to kick in)
9
Q
spermarche
A
is the beginning of development of sperm in boys’ testicles at puberty. It is the counterpart of menarche in girls.
10
Q
roles of genes - puberty timing
A
• Tend to reach puberty at about the age our parents did
TWIN STUDIES = identical - 2 months diff., frat were 12 months diff.
11
Q
environment - puberty timing
A
o Nutrition, weight, dieting, exercise
o Psychosocial aspects
12
Q
socioemotional stress - puberty timing
A
- links between earlier pubertal timing & stress: divorce, father absence, family conflict
- EVOLUTIONARY MODEL = in a stressful home environment, it is adaptive to mature early, reproduce early
13
Q
effects of early and late maturation
A
o Early maturing: boys tend to fare better than girls
• Early maturing boys → helpful for sports and athletics
• Late maturing boys→ later than everybody else and don’t do as well psychologically
o Later maturing: girls fare better than boys
• Early maturing girls → feel more self-conscious and different from their peers
14
Q
why body image is a focal concern
A
- Amazing amount of growth
- Yet adolescents are now aware of changing body
- Adolescents as marginal group - a group between cultures – within-group conformity is important
15
Q
Jones et. al ***
A
• Mass media contribute by presenting one-dimensional images of attractiveness
o Girls - curvy, thin, sexy, attractive face
o Boys - lean, muscular, attractive face
16
Q
eating disorders
A
• Increased risk of eating disorders, such as anorexia and steroid abuse in boys
*Girls that are at higher risk = those that reach puberty early, dissatisfied with their body image, and grow up in homes where concern with weight and thinness
17
Q
general nature of dating
A
• Ages: Start dating at 13-14 (girls) & 14-15 (boys)
in groups
• For many, early dating is based on a superficial intimacy rather than a genuine closeness
18
Q
early sexual experiences
A
During ages 15-19, a majority become sexually active
BOYS = scoring
GIRLS = emotional love and intimacy
19
Q
STIS
A
• Adolescents have highest STI rate of all age groups - 1 in 5-6 sexually active teens contracts one each year
20
Q
gender differences in sexual scripts
A
MALES • Expected to be interested in sex; part of being a man
• Expected to take the initiative
• Expected to focus on women’s appearance
• Acceptance/idealization of nonrelational sex
FEMALES • Expected to be less interested in sex, more interested in love and relationships (“good girl” vs. “bad girl”)
• Responsible ones and limit-setters
• Little emphasis on own desire; goal is to be desirable
21
Q
sexual socialization as a multidimensional process;
A
- Learning involves many issues
- Input comes in different forms
- Input is received across the lifespan
- Information comes from several sources
22
Q
common sources of sexual communication
A
- Parents seen as initially sexuality educators
- Peers, schools, media often cited as most important
- Source of information varies by topic
23
Q
nature of parental sexual communication
A
- American parents typically give minimal direct, verbal information
- Focus of communication is often on biology, physical development, sexual safety
- Minimal discussion of sexual pleasure, sexual feelings
24
Q
- impact of parental communication on early sexual behavior
A
- Some studies find that parent/child communication is associated with a delay of sexual intercourse & safer sex practices
- A handful report the opposite association
- Many others report no effects
25
– why mixed findings, findings of Widman et al. (2016) meta-analysis
research has viewed parental communication too simplistically -
• Focus on amount over content
• Don't consider gender scripts
26
comparison of the nature & impact of sexual communication from parents & peers (Ward lab findings)
o Parents - relational, abstinence
POSITIVE = parental relational and parental sex-positive discourses
NEG = abstinence
o Peers - sex-positive, gendered (NEG), relational
27
WARD LAB FINDINGS (media)
1. Dating is a game/competition (12%)
2. Men are suppose to want sex (10%)
3. Women are valued for sexual appeal (12%)
o Holding stereotypical notions about female and male sexual roles
o More traditional gender role attitudes
o A stronger acceptance of recreational attitudes about sex (game-playing, casual)
28
media and adolescent sexuality from READING 5 (Strasburger, 2005) and from Ward lab findings
Third Person Effect: Media doesn’t affect me, but it affects everyone else...
•Cultivation Effect Theory: Heavy exposure alters perceptions of social reality
•Social Cognitive Theory: Vicarious learning via the media
•Super-Peer Theory: TV as an encouraging “super peer”
29
text: adolescent STIs & pregnancy - rates, consequences (p. 311)
1. Effective sex education reaches too few teenagers
2. convenient low-cost contraceptive services for adolescents are scarce
3. many families live in poverty, which encourages young people to take risks
30
consequences of pregnancy
1. Educational attainment
2. Marital patterns
3. Economic circumstances
31
homosexuality (3 phases)
1. Feeling different
2. Confusion (10)
3. Self Acceptance (11-12 for boys and 14-15 for girls) end of adolescence -- to tell others
BIOLOGICALLY DETERMINED = 6-12
32
General advances in adolescent thinking & 3 specific advances: 1) thinking about possibilities; 2) thinking through hypotheses - hypothetico-deductive reasoning; 3) thinking about abstract concepts
GENERAL = more enlightened, imaginative, idealistic, and rational
1. PROPOSITIONAL THOUGHT ("what if")= evaluate logic of propositions without referring to real-world circumstances;
handle the abstract and the hypothetical
• Allows adolescents to fantasize & speculate on a grander scale
• Able to consider range of alternatives in problem solving
2. hypothetico deductive reasoning (if, then) = formulate, test, evaluate hypotheses in an orderly fashion;
3. love, faith, greed
33
Role of brain development in adolescents’ changing thinking – why we see more “what were they thinking” moments
* Adolescents still do not fully resemble adults in their decision-making
* See higher risk-taking and "What were they thinking?" moments - they did not think the consequences of their actions as much - Why?
* ---Decision-making in the real world is the product of both logical reasoning AND psychological factors (e.g., impulse control, handling peer pressure) - these 2 components mature at different rates
34
sources of psychosocial immaturity
• Gap in the maturation of brain networks
• Socioemotional networks develop early - highlight emotion, rewards, sensation-seeking, positive interactions
--cog. control system develops later
o Impulse control
o Emotional regulation
o Delay of gratification
o Resistance to peer influence
35
“side effects” of new thinking abilities
1. See an intense pre-occupation with the self and with presenting self in best light
2. Two distortions in the relation between self and others
(heightened self consciousness/specialness)
3. Sensitive to hypocrisy
4. Difficulty with decision-making
36
imaginary audience
= erroneous belief that one's behavior is the subject of constant public attention
37
personal fable
erroneous belief that one's thoughts, feelings, and experiences are totally unique
-• Makes them feel that no one else can understand how they feel
38
sensitivity to hypocrisy
leads to argumentativeness
39
academic achievement (text pp. 321-324) – role of child-rearing practices, parent-school partnerships, peers, classroom learning
positive educational environments both at home and in school leads to traits that support achievement, such as intelligence, confidence, desire to achieve
- Authoritative parenting is linked to higher achievement
- parents are invested in education by checking in, attending parent-teacher conferences, etc.
- different among different cultures, but if a teen's peers value achievement, it will help that teen value achievement as well (besides Asian culture, which stresses respect for family and teacher expectations over close peer ties)
- distractions, such as texting, can diminish achievement
- adolescents want warmth and supportiveness in the classroom, along with stimulating teaching mechanisms; believe they lack these components
- schools separate students into vocational training (tracking); students assigned to a low track are restricted to a lower-quality curriculum, resulting in lower academic self-esteem and less exerted effort
40
changes in self-concept
* Age 12-14: adolescents describe themselves by unifying traits into more abstract descriptions
- ex. smart/curious => intelligent
* Generalizations are not interconnected and often contradictory (opposing traits)
- ex. intelligent & clueless; extrovert & introvert
* Gradual cognitive changes enable teenagers to combine their traits into an organized system
- reveals an increasing awareness that psychological qualities can vary from situation to situation
- older adolescents add integrating principles that make sense of formerly troublesome contradictions (act differently with peers as opposed to family)
* (compared to children) Teenagers place more emphasis on social virtues, such as being friendly, considerate, kind, cooperative
- personal and moral values also appear as key themes
- revise their views of themselves to include enduring beliefs and plans, moving toward the unity of self that is central to identity development
41
changes in self esteem
* Teenagers add several new dimensions of self-evaluation
- ex. close friendship, romantic appeal, job competence
* Self-Esteem rises from mid- to late adolescence for most young people
- increasing sense of independence and mastery in one's life predicted this rise
* Gender differences in levels of Self-Esteem
- Girls: more positive in language arts, close friendship, social acceptance
- Boys: more positive in athletics, math, and science skills
* Parenting/teaching styles affect self-esteem levels
- Authoritative parenting/teacher encouragement predicts favorable, stable self-esteem
- adolescents' with parents who are critical and insulting have highly unstable and generally low self-esteem
- peer acceptance can help protect self-esteem for teenagers experiencing low parental warmth and approval
- BUT relying on peers to affirm self-worth is a risk for adjustment difficulties
42
definition of identity – psychosocial conflict of identity achievement vs. identity role confusion - nature of identify formation process and complexities (hierarchical, intersectional, contextual)
well-organized conception of self, made up of values, beliefs, and goals to which an individual is solidly committed to
- must integrate various components of one's self-understanding into a coherent identity; takes time
43
psychosocial conflict of identity achievement vs identity role confusion
* (Erikson) saw process as driven by an Identity Crisis...
- temporary period of confusion and distress experienced while experimenting with alternatives
* Outcomes:
- Identity Achievement OR
- Identity Role Confusion: failure in identity consolidation; lack of an adult path
44
nature of ID formation process
- typical process that takes place gradually over time
- not a simple, straightforward process
- involves exploration and questioning
45
complexities of ID formation
1. multiple domains of exploration; not all equally developed
- -ex: religious and sexual ID developed @ diff times
2. multiple influences
- -peers, parents, school
3. identities are Hierarchical
- -some ID more important
4. identities are Intersectional
- -overlap in meaningful ways/a unique ID is created @ the intersection of other IDs
5. identity is Contextual
- -dif. environments or situations can highlight specific ID
46
ethic identity def
enduring, basic aspect or self that includes a sense of membership in an ethnic group and the attitudes/feelings related to that membership
- many consciously confront this for the first time during adolescence
47
ethnic ID challenges and beneficial outcomes
- dealing with discrimination against your group
- negotiating stereotypes of one's group held by mainstream culture
- confronting conflicting values between ethnic and mainstream cultures; may develop a Bicultural Identity
BENEFICIAL OUTCOMES of STRONGER ETHNIC ID=
- higher Self-Esteem
- more satisfying interactions with family
- better academic outcomes and school performance
- being less affected by discrimination experiences
- greater levels of daily happiness and less daily anxiety
48
4 stages of ID formation
1. Identity Achievement
- -yes to exploration, yes to commitment
2. Identity Moratorium
- -yes to exploration; no commitment
3. Identity Foreclosure
- -no exploration; yes commitment
4. Identity Diffusion
- -no exploration; no commitment
49
kohlberg's 3 broad levels of moral reasoning
- Pre-Conventional
* morality is externally controlled, self centered focus on fear of personal punishment, early adolescence
- Conventional
* moral reasoning is guided by laws and social norms; mid to late adolescence transition
- Post-Coventional
* moral reasoning is guided by universal ethnical principles
50
critiques of kohlberges levels
- variability
* wide variabilitiy in moral reasoning across situations; not as neat as one might assume
- age biases
* are the dilemmas being presented too mature to reason with/understand
- possible gender bias? (Gilligan)
* Gilligan believed...
* Justice Perspective:
- ex. individual rights, principles of justice
- does not fully reflect relationships and concern for others
* Female morality:
- embedded in human relationships
- ethic of care: based on harmony and need for compassionate care
* HOWEVER, no consistent evidence has been found for sex differences in reasoning levels*
51
how striving for autonomy and individuation plays out in adolescence
individuation = process of becoming an individual
52
parent child conflict
* often accompanied by an increase in parent-child conflict
- conflict most FREQUENT in early adolescence (age 11-12)
- conflict most INTENSE in mid-adolescence
- conflict tends to focus on issues of self-discipline & self-control
- conflict usually involves repeated, petty arguments about cleanliness, leisure time, chores. etc.
- parent-child conflict represents teen's desire for independence
53
adolescent friendships
* key factors of friendship:
- intimacy
- mutual understanding
- loyalty
* rise of Self-Disclosure: sharing of private thoughts and feelings
* less possessive of friends; fewer negative interactions
* emotional closeness is more common among girls and minorities
* closeness may lead to Corumination: repeatedly mulling over problems and negative emotions, which can lead to anxiety and depression
* technology can contribute to closeness, but can also create issues and impact face-to-face communication
* Close friendships...
- help adolescents deal with stress
- cause people to be more involved in school/have better attitudes toward school
- provide a foundation for future intimate relationships
- help explore the self a develop a deep understanding of another person
54
adolescent depression
most common psychological problem of adolescence (15-20% of adolescents)
- characterized by pervasive feelings of sadness, irritability, low self-esteem, boredom, inability to experience pleasure
- increases sharply between ages 12 to 16
- occurs 2x more often in girls (as in boys)...
* biological changes in puberty
* coping strategies; girls more likely to ruminate/contemplate
* female gender role emphasizes passivity and dependence (lack of voice)
* negative body-image
- Causes (of depression):
* biological factors (ex. heredity, neurotransmitter levels)
* environmental factors (ex. loss, stressful events)
55
adolescent suicide
- sharp jump during adolescence
- higher rate of depression among girls, but boys are 4x more likely for suicide; girls experience more unsuccessful attempts
- whites have suicide higher rates than minorities (possibly due to smaller size of extended family)
- Black males & Native-American suicide rate rising possibly due to poverty, school failure, alcohol/drug abuse, depression
- likely to occur in:
* highly intelligent but lonely individuals who are withdrawn and feel they cannot meet own standards
* individuals with antisocial tendencies who are destructive and hostile
- family history of emotional disorders/stressful life events may also contribute
- in order to prevent suicides, parents/teachers must be trained to pick up the troubling signals (given off by the teenager)
- teenage suicides often occur in clusters; one death increases the likelihood among other depressed peers to commit suicide
56
peak of physical development of health
physical strength increases during the 20s, peaks around 30, and then declines
- athletic skill peaks between 20 and 30
- optimum level of body system functioning (during Early Adulthood)
- death from disease is rare
- body has reached full form during 20s; see:
* growth in muscle
* increases in fat
* increase in weight
57
biological aging def/nature
genetically influenced declines in the functioning of organs and systems that are universal among humans
- process of decline is asynchronous (body systems decline at different rates/times)
- large differences across individuals in rate and course of aging
- people age differently due to:
* genetics
* lifestyle choices
* living environments
* historical periods
- "body wearing out" = oversimplification
58
bio aging fnctioning
(gradual changes)
- heart and lung functioning decline
- gradual muscle loss and change in motor performance
- reproductive capacity declines, especially those age 35+
- takes longer to adapt to/recover from strenuous activities and situations
59
bio aging - physical appearance
- gradual loss of collagen; thinner, less flexible skin, wrinkles, sagging
- other parts of body wrinkle and sag
- gray hair begins to emerge ~30 years old due to decrease in number of pigment producing cells
- thinner hair as well
60
theories from text of bio aging
two explanations:
1. programmed effects of specific genes (causes aging)
2. cumulative effects of random events damage genetic/cellular material
- support for both explanations exists, and a combination of each may prove to be correct
3. CROSS LINKAGE = protein fibers link with one another (tissue less elastic)
61
telomeres
DNA found at the end of chromosomes that protects the ends from destruction
- shorten with age; eventually cell cannot duplicate/divide any more
- can contribute to disease or early death
* part of genetic programming theory/explanation
62
free radicals
naturally occurring, highly reactive chemicals that form in the presence of oxygen
- formation process destroys nearby cellular material, increasing the person's vulnerability to disorders of aging
63
lifestyle factors affect aging - smoking
- 20% of adults
- single biggest contributor to health problems
- related to 480,000 deaths each year
- about 90% of smokers start before age 21
- quitting at any point can have enormous health benefits
64
drinking - lifestyle factor
- Men: 5 or more drinks in a 2-hour period
| - Women: 4 or more drinks in a 2-hour period
65
findings from schulenbergs work on binge drinking
Question:
- once a binge drinker, always a binge drinker? do these patterns persist or is this a life-stage issue?
- those who decreased were more likely to:
* have relatively more concrete plans for the future
* express more dissatisfaction with the present
* felt an inner desire to drink only to get drunk
66
hetero and sexual minority attitudes and behavior
- monogamous, emotionally committed couples are more typical and satisfied
- partners tend to be similar in age (within 5 years), education, ethnicity, and (to a lesser extent) religion
- meet in conventional ways; places where people similar to themselves congregate
- Internet has become an increasingly popular way to initiate relationships
- dating leads to Cohabitation, which then leads to either marriage or breakup
- as number of sexual partners increases, sexual satisfaction declines sharply
67
riegels view of adult cognition and nature of dialectical thought
dialectical operations
- adults accept contradiction and integrate differing view points into a longer conceptual understanding
- understanding via pros and cons
68
perrys theory of epistemic cognition
- younger people: *knowledge as discrete, separate units
* dualistic thinking (right/wrong, good/bad)
- older people:
* knowledge is embedded in a framework
* relativistic thinking; few absolute truths
69
labouvie vief's view of adult cognition
pragmatic thought
- employing only traditional models may be maladaptive
- subjective feels and personal experiences must be integrated with objective; analytical thought
70
general characteristics of postformal thought- relativism, contradiction, synthesis
- Relativism
* awareness of multiple truths
- Contradiction
* basic aspect of reality
* statement of a position opp. to one already made
- Synthesis
* synthesizing controlling thoughts, emotions, and experiences into a larger framework
71
cog and psych impact of college experience
- improves verbal and quantitative skills, as well as knowledge of specific subject areas
- improves oral and written communication skills
- improves various aspects of problem-solving:
* applying reason and evidence
* identifying strengths and weaknesses
* aware of multiple perspectives and truths (Relativism)
- causes revisions in attitudes and values
- fosters concern with individual rights and human welfare; enlightenment
- develop greater self-understanding, enhanced self-esteem, and a firmer sense of identity
- prepares students to be life long learners
72
Reading ARNETT ; what/when is stage of emerging adulthood
* 18-25
* period of life characterized by change and exploration of possible life directions
* distinguished by relative independence from social roles and normative expectation
* exists only in cultures that allow young people a prolonged period of independent role exploration during the late teens and twenties
* *the transition to adulthood has become so delayed and prolonged that it has spawned a new transitional period extending from the late teens to the mid to late twenties
* *characterized by exploration, cultural variation, risk/resilience, and validity (as a distinct period
73
exploration
- extended explorations of alternatives in education, work, and personal values
- identity development extends into college years
- religious attendance/belief drops
74
cultural variation
- increased education required for entry level positions in many fields, gains in economic prosperity, and a reduced need for young people's labor in industrialized nations has prompted the appearance of Emerging Adulthood
- wealthy nations with longer-lived populations have no pressing need for young peoples' labor
75
risk and resilience
- emerging adults often encounter disappointments in love and work that require them to adjust and sometimes radically change their life path
- exploration may lead to risky behaviors
76
validity as a distinct period
- is Emerging Adulthood a real, unique life-stage? or is it just an opinion?
77
eriksons psychosocial conflict (inimacy v isolation)
- Intimacy involves a mutually satisfying, close relationship with another person
- individuals must balance needs for independence and intimacy
* without independence, a person may define self only in terms of partner; sacrifice self-respect and initiative
* without intimacy, a person faces isolation, loneliness, and self-absorption
78
outcome of intamacy vs isolation
- Postive Resolution = Intimacy: person is able to commit to a loving relationship via sacrifice and compromise
- Negative Resolution = Isolation: person is unable/fails to achieve mutuality
79
social clock
age-graded expectations for major life events, such as...
- beginning a first job
- getting married
- birth of first child
- buying a home
- retiring
80
sternberg's triangular theory of love
PASSIONATE
-intense sexual attraction
COMPANIONATE
-warm, trusting affection and valuing the other person
COMPASSIONATE
-concern for the other's well being, expressed through caring efforts to alleviate the other's distress and promote the others growth and flourishing
81
levinson's seasons of life
* central concept is the Life Structure: the underlying pattern or design of a person's life at a given time; consists of relationships with significant others*
- development as a sequence of stable (pursue goals, at ease with self) and transitional phases (question one's life and explore new possibilities)
82
levinsons life structure
the underlying pattern or design of a person's life at a given time; consists of relationships with significant others
- central concept in Levinson's Season's of Life
83
levinsons seasons of life: sequence for early adulthood
- 17-22: transition to early adulthood; task = become psychologically independent from parents
- 22-28: stable phase, become autonomous; establish self in adult world, work on developing intimacy
- 28-33: age 30 transition; reevaluate Life Structure
- 33-40: stable phase; "settling down"
* career consolidation is a major goal
* sex differences...
- men are settling down
- continued instability for women
84
dream & mentor role (levinson)
- DREAM (define and update throughout adulthood)
* an image of the self in the adult world that guides decision making
* inspires a person in present endeavors
- ex: Sam in "Seniors: Four Years in Retrospect" (wants to go to Harvard an be a lawyer for NBA, became head manager of basketball team which he always wanted to be, knew when he wanted to get married)
* Men = career/ women = fam and career
- MENTOR
* facilitates realization of the dream
* provides a transition from the parent/child relationship to the world of adult peers
85
levinsons concerns and criticisms
1. relevance of patterns to today's youth (b/c study is quite outdated); cohort effects?
2. few non-college educated and low-income men and women were included in the samples
3. possible inaccurate memories; retrospective
4. rigidity of stages (there may be more variety today)
86
what ppl look for in partners
we tend to select mates similar to ourselves; compatibility (instead of opposites attract)
- both women and men prefer intelligent, honest, and emotionally stable partners, who are attractive, with a "good" personality
- sex differences commonly reported:
* women: good earning potential,
87
role of childhood attachment patterns
SECURE
-View selves as likeable•Comfortable with intimacy•Empathic and supportive to partner•Love = trust, happiness, friendship
AVOIDANT (disrespectful)
•View self as unlikeable•Stress independence•Mistrust of partners, fear of closeness•Love = emotional distance, little enjoyment
RESISTANT
•Seek to merge completely with partner•Worry about overwhelming partner•Desire for extreme intimacy•Love = jealousy, desperation
88
traditional vs egalitarian marriage
TRADITIONAL
*clear division of hub/wife roles
EGALITARIAN
*partners are equals
89
predictors of marital satisfaction
1. communication of emotion
2. homogamy: similarity of values and interests
3. age of marriage; after age 23 has better chance of lasting (most consistent predictor)
- intimacy is hard for young people who are still working on their identity
4. length of courtship/dating; six months baseline
5. timing of first pregnancy; AFTER first year of marriage
6. warm and positive relationships to extended family
7. stable marital patterns in extended family
8. financials and employment security
9. personality characteristics
10. expectations and myths about marriage
90
typical probs and conflicts in transtion to parenthood
- constant caregiving
- added financial responsibilities
- less time for the couple's relationship
- increased responsibilities often prompt a shift to more traditional marital roles
- shared caregiving predicts greater parental happiness and positive parent-infant interactions
91
singlehood
not living with an intimate partner
- postponement of marriage and high divorce rates have contributed to a rise in __________
- despite the drawbacks, single people typically appreciate their freedom and mobility
92
cohabitation
the lifestyle of unmarried couples who have a sexually intimate relationship and who share a residence; living together before marriage
- preferred mode of entry into a committed intimate partnership
- Americans who do so tend to be less conventional in values and less committed to their partners; their marriages are more likely to fail
93
childlessness
```
voluntary:
- tend to be college-educated
- career oriented
- content with their lives
involuntary:
- interferes with adjustment and life satisfaction
```
94
divorce
- almost half of U.S. marriages end in divorce (42-45%)
- 2/3 of divorced people remarry
- contributors:
* maladaptive communication patterns
* younger ages at marriage
* family history of divorce
* poverty
* changing status of women
* American individualism
95
remarriage
___________ are especially vulnerable to breakups for several reasons:
- prominence of practical concerns in the decision to remarry
- persistence of negative styles of communication
- acceptance of divorce as a solution to marital difficulties
- problems adjusting to a stepfamily
