Experimental Method, Issues, Types, Designs, Ethics & Sampling

Question 1

How do you decide which type of hypothesis to use?

Answer 1

If there is previous research mentioned in the stem then it is appropriate to use a directional, otherwise there is no information influencing a direction so non-directional is appropriate.

Question 2

What is the independent variable?

Answer 2

The variable that a researcher changes or manipulates

Question 3

What is the dependent variable?

Answer 3

The variable that is being measured in response to the IV change.

Question 4

How many conditions are needed minimum?

Answer 4

2 - a control with no IV manipulation then a second with the desired level of IV manipulation.

Question 5

What is operationalising a hypothesis?

Answer 5

Defining the IV and DV, defining measurement methods, providing direct instructions for replicability and to make it testable.

Question 6

What are extraneous variables?

Answer 6

Any variable that may affect the DV if it is not controlled but does not follow the IV.

Question 7

What is a confounding variable?

Answer 7

A type of EV where it varies systematically with the IV, so we cannot tell if the change in the DV is due to the CV or the IV.

Question 8

What are demand characteristics?

Answer 8

Any cue from the researcher or situation that may be interpreted as revealing the purpose of the investigation, likely leading to a participant changing their behaviour in the setting.

Question 9

What are the 2 types of demand characteristics?

Answer 9

please-U - try to exactly achieve what they discerned the aim to be
screw-U - try to achieve the opposite of what they believe the researcher expects.

Question 10

What are investigator effects?

Answer 10

Any effect of the investigators behaviour on the research outcome. This includes interaction with participants or selection thereof.

Question 11

What is randomisation?

Answer 11

The use of chance methods to control for the effects of bias when designing materials and deciding the order of experimental conditions.

Question 12

What is standardisation?

Answer 12

Using exactly the same formalised procedures and instructions for all participants in a research study.

Question 13

What are independent groups?

Answer 13

Participants are allocated to different groups where each group represents one experimental condition.

Question 14

What are repeated measures?

Answer 14

All participants take part in all conditions of the experiment.

Question 15

What are matched pairs?

Answer 15

Participants are first matched on variables which directly affect the outcome of the study, and assigned to separate groups.

Question 16

What is random allocation?

Answer 16

An attempt to control for participant variables in an independent groups design which ensures that each participant has the same chance of being in one condition as any other.

Question 17

What is counterbalancing?

Answer 17

An attempt to control for the effects of order in a repeated measures design - half the participants experience the conditions in one order and the other half in the opposite order.

Question 18

What is a laboratory experiment?

Answer 18

An experiment that takes place in a controlled environment within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV, whilst maintaining strict control of extraneous variables.

Question 19

What is a strength of a laboratory experiment?

Answer 19

High control over CVs and EVs - can be sure of C&E - high internal validity.
Replication is more possible because of the high level of control.

Question 20

What is a limitation of a laboratory experiment?

Answer 20

They may lack generalisability - the environment may be artificial and not like everyday life, and in an unfamiliar context they may behave in unusual ways.
Participants may exhibit demand characteristics.
Artificial tasks - low mundane realism.

Question 21

What is a field experiment?

Answer 21

An experiment that takes place in a natural setting within which the researcher manipulates the IV and records the effect on the DV.

Question 22

What is a strength of a field experiment?

Answer 22

High mundane realism so the behaviour measured may be more valid and authentic - participants may be unaware they’re being studied.

Question 23

What is a limitation of a field experiment?

Answer 23

Lower control over CVs and EVs, cause and effect is harder to control for.
Ethical issues - participants unaware they’re being studied can’t consent.

Question 24

What is a natural experiment?

Answer 24

An experiment where the change in the IV is not brought about by the researcher and would have happened regardless. The researcher records the effect on a DV they have decided on.

Question 25

What is a strength of a natural experiment?

Answer 25

They provide opportunities for research that may not otherwise be undertaken for practical or ethical reasons - Romanian orphan studies.
High validity because they study real-world issues.

Question 26

What is a limitation of a natural experiment?

Answer 26

Event may happen rarely, reducing research opportunities and make it non-generalisable.
Participants may not be randomly allocated to experimental conditions so the researcher may be unsure whether the IV affected the DV. There are lots of other differences that affect the research.

Question 27

What is a quasi experiment?

Answer 27

The IV is based on an existing difference between people that has not been manipulated by a person or event, such as age or gender. The DV may be naturally occurring, or devised by the experimenter and measured in a field or a lab.

Question 28

What are strengths and limitations of quasi-experiments?

Answer 28

+ Carried out under controlled conditions and therefore share some strengths of a lab experiment.
- Cannot randomly allocate participants to conditions and there may be confounding variables.

In both quasi and natural experiments, the IV is not deliberately manipulated and therefore we cannot claim that the IV caused observable change.

Question 29

What is the point of a sample?

Answer 29

It is not possible to include all members of a target population so a representative sample is found instead, so that the findings are generalisable to the rest of the population.

Question 30

What is a random sample?

Answer 30

A sophisticated form of sampling where all members of the target population have an equal chance of getting selected.

Question 31

How do you conduct a random sample?

Answer 31

Obtain a list of all members of the target population. Then all the names are assigned a number, then the sample is selected through the use of a lottery method.

Question 32

What is a systematic sample?

Answer 32

Every nth member of the target population is selected.

Question 33

How do you conduct a systematic sample?

Answer 33

A sampling frame is produced, which is an alphabetised list of the target population. A system is nominated, every 3rd for example, and may begin from a randomly determined start to reduce bias. The researcher works through the frame until it is complete.

Question 34

What is a stratified sample?

Answer 34

A sophisticated form in which the composition the sample reflects the proportions of people in certain strata within the target population.

Question 35

How do you conduct a stratified sample?

Answer 35

Identify the different strata that make up the population, then identify the proportions thereof. The participants that make up each stratum are randomly selected within said proportions.

Question 36

What is an opportunity sample?

Answer 36

A technique where researchers select anyone who is willing and available, taking the chance to ask whoever is around at the time of their study.

Question 37

What is a volunteer sample?

Answer 37

Participants select themselves to be part of the sample - self-selection. A researcher may place an advert in a newspaper or noticeboard.

Question 38

What is the evaluation for a random sample?

Answer 38

+ Unbiased - CVs or EVs should be divided between groups - higher internal validity.
- Difficult and time-consuming to conduct.
- Could still end up with an unrepresentative sample since it is down to chance.
- Chosen participants may refuse so you end up with a volunteer sample.

Question 39

What is the evaluation for a systematic sample?

Answer 39

+ Objective - once the system is established the researcher has no influence over who is chosen.
- Time consuming and participants may refuse to take part - volunteer sample.

Question 40

What is the evaluation for a stratified sample?

Answer 40

+ Produces a representative sample because it is designed to reflect population composition - generalisation of findings possible.
- Identified strata cannot reflect all the ways people are different - complete representation impossible.

Question 41

What is the evaluation for an opportunity sample?

Answer 41

+ Convenient - less costly because there is no real process behind it or need to obtain a list.
- Biased - unrepresentative of target population as selected from individual area.
- Biased - researcher may avoid those he does not like the look of.

Question 42

What is the evaluation for a volunteer sample?

Answer 42

+ Easy to conduct - minimum effort and less time consuming.
+ Participants are more engaged as they have volunteered.
- Volunteer bias - attract a certain type of person - likely ‘please-U effect’.

Question 43

What are the 4 major ethical issues involved in psychological studies?

Answer 43

Informed consent, Deception, Protection from Harm, Privacy and Confidentiality.

Question 44

What is informed consent?

Answer 44

Prospective participants should know what they are getting into - making participants aware of the aims, procedures, rights (RTW) and what their data will be used for. They should make an informed judgement.

Question 45

What is deception?

Answer 45

Deliberately misleading or withholding information at any stage of the investigation - participants deceived cannot be said to have given informed consent.
Can be justified if it does not put the participant under undue distress.

Question 46

What is protection from harm?

Answer 46

Participants should not be placed at any more risk than they would in their daily lives, and protected from physical and psychological harm. An important part of this is RTW.

Question 47

What is privacy and confidentiality?

Answer 47

They have the right to control information about themselves - the right of privacy. If invaded then confidentiality should be protected under the Data Protection Act 1998. This right extends to location or geographical locations.

Question 48

What is the BPS code of conduct and how does it help deal with ethical issues?

Answer 48

BPS have a code of ethics and researchers could lose their licence and job for not following them. They are matched to ethical issues and ensure all participants are treated with respect and consideration. They are implemented by ethics committees who use a cost-benefit approach to determine whether proposals are ethically acceptable.

Question 49

How do you deal with informed consent?

Answer 49

PPs should be given a consent letter detailing all relevant information. This should be signed and for investigations involving children under 16, parental consent is required.

Question 50

What is presumptive consent?

Answer 50

A group of the PPs peers are asked whether they would deem it acceptable, so the consent of the PP is presumed.

Question 51

What is prior general consent?

Answer 51

PPs give their permission to take part in studies including those involving deception, so they are giving consent to be deceived.

Question 52

What is retrospective consent?

Answer 52

They are asked for their consent during the debrief and made aware of any deception.

Question 53

How do you deal with deception and protection from harm?

Answer 53

• Full debrief of the aims and procedures.
• Told what their data is used for and given RTW.
• Reassured their behaviour was normal and referred to counselling if necessary.

Question 54

How do you deal with confidentiality?

Answer 54

Don’t record any personal details. Initials or numbers are used in reports. It is standard that during de/brief, participants will be reminded that their data will be protected and not shared with other researchers.