Expertise

Question 1

Development of expertise is similar to

Answer 1

problem-solving because experts are extremely efficient at solving various problems in their area of expertise using their extensive knowledge base.

Question 2

What is Problem Solving?

Answer 2

It is purposeful (i.e., goal-directed)

A problem only exists when someone lacks the relevant knowledge to produce an immediate solution

Question 3

Problem solving sequence

Answer 3

Problem solver in one state (where theres a problem)
Problem solver wants to reach another state (no problem)
Bridging gap is mutlitple step process

Question 4

Well-Defined Problems

Answer 4

All aspects of the problem are specified.

Have an optimal strategy and one right answer

Question 5

Ill-Defined Problems

Answer 5

Underspecified goals

Question 6

Illustrating the difference between well defined and ill defined problems

Answer 6

Case of PF
Damage to right prefrontal cortex (involved in higher order processes in achieving a goal)
Performed well on Laboratory but not on ill-defined problems

Question 7

Knowledge-Rich Problems

Answer 7

Can only be solved by individuals possessing a considerable amount of specific knowledge

Question 8

Knowledge-Lean Problems

Answer 8

Don’t require the possession of specific knowledge

Question 9

Thorndike (1898)

Answer 9

Trial-and-error learning

Used arbitrary relationships between behaviour and goal

Question 10

Gestaltists

Answer 10

More flexible approach

Focussed on the more complex, productive thinking - insight

Question 11

Insight

Answer 11

The sudden restructuring of a problem, not obvious

Often accompanied by an “ah-ha” experience

Question 12

How does insight occur?

Answer 12

Representational change theory
Constraint relaxation
Re-coding
Elaboration

Question 13

Representational change theory

Answer 13

changing representation of problem

Question 14

Past experience

Answer 14

Functional fixedness
Mental set
Inflexible

Question 15

Functional fixedness

Answer 15

Dunker’s (1945) candle problem

Question 16

Mental set

Answer 16

Use previous problem solving strategy and we stick with it if it wasn’t successful

Question 17

Computational approach-Newell & Simon (1972)

Answer 17

General Problem Solver-Computer program designed to solve numerous well-defined problems

Problem space includes
Initial state of the problem
Goal state
Possible mental operators

Question 18

Problem-solving strategies for limited capacity

Answer 18

Heuristics
Algorithms
Means–ends analysis

Question 19

Heuristics

Answer 19

Rules of thumb
Often no clear idea of structure
Focus on short-term goals

Question 20

Algorithms

Answer 20

Methods or procedures for solving a problem

Mathematics

Question 21

Means-End Analysis

Answer 21

Note the difference between the current state of the problem and the goal state

Form a subgoal that will reduce the difference between the current and goals states

Select a mental operator that will permit attainment

Question 22

Evidence supporting Newell & Simon (1972) Computational framework

Answer 22

The approach works well with several well-defined problems

Specifies the shortest sequence of moves from initial state to goal

Question 23

Problems with Newell & Simon’s computational framework (1972)

Answer 23

Better than humans at remembering what happened on a problem but inferior to humans at planning future moves

Everyday life problems are ill-defined

Performance on insight problems?

Doesn’t take into account Individual differences

Question 24

Analogical problem solving

Answer 24

Involves using similarities between current problem and one or more problems solved in the past

Question 25

How does analogical problem-solving occur?

Answer 25

Detecting similarity between problems (Chen (2002)) Superficial similarity (solution irrelevant details) Structural similarity Procedural similarity

Question 26

Gick and Holyoak (1980)

Answer 26

showing the percentage of subjects who solved Dunker’s radiation problem when they were given an analogy (general-story condition) or were just asked to solve the problem (control condition).

Question 27

Analogical Problem Solving

Answer 27

Used when direct knowledge does not exist Depends on working-memory components (Morrison, Holyoak, and Truong (2001)) Depends on frontal executive processes

Question 28

EXPERTISE

Answer 28

highly skilled performance in one or more task domains

Question 29

What Makes a Chess Expert?Chase and Simon’s (1973a) chunking theory

Answer 29

Detailed information about chess positions stored in long-term memory

Question 30

Problems with chunking

Answer 30

Predicts that it will take longer than it actually does to encode chess positions

Question 31

Template Theory

Answer 31

A core: similar to fixed information stored in chunks Slots: contain variable information about pieces and locations Adaptable and flexible Abstract schematic structure

Question 32

Predictions of template theory

Answer 32

Chess positions stored in three large templates Template knowledge can be accessed rapidly Precise location of chess pieces stored in template

Question 33

Template Theory Strengths

Answer 33

Evidence supports notion that board positions are stored in a few templates Outstanding chess players possess much more template-based knowledge of chess positions than non-experts Experts have better memory for random positions

Question 34

Template Theory Limitations

Answer 34

Slow search processes are more important than credited Doesn’t fully explain adaptive expertise Controversy over what is stored in Long Term Memory Individual differences

Question 35

Medical expertise

Answer 35

Ability to make rapid and accurate diagnoses | Complex decision-making

Question 36

Medical Expertise: Engle’s (2008Explicit/Analytic Reasoning or Focal Search

Answer 36

Relatively slow Deliberate Associated with conscious awareness Analytic, rule-based strategies

Question 37

Medical Expertise: Engle’s (2008) Implicit/Non-Analytic Reasoning or Global Impression

Answer 37

Fast/automatic Holistic/global Gist-based

Question 38

Identifying diagnostic strategies used by medical novices and experts

Answer 38

Tracking eye movements while examining case slides – Krupinsky et al 2006 Pathologists spent less time examining each slide (4.5 seconds versus 7.1 residents and 11.9 students) More information extracted from initial fixation for pathologists – relying on global impression

Question 39

Medical Expertise Research Strengths

Answer 39

Medical experts generally do rely more on fast, automatic processes in diagnosis than novices Experts tend to outperform non-experts

Question 40

Medical Expertise Research Limitations

Answer 40

Not enough has been done to learn how experts gain their expertise Raises the danger of underestimating analytic processing If and how experts use stored exemplars versus gist, needs to be explored

Question 41

Chess Expertise vs. Medical Expertise: Similarities

Answer 41

Years of intensive training Large and accessible store of relevant knowledge Better able to make use of rigid, automatic processes Ability to make flexible use of analytic or strategy-based processes

Question 42

Chess Expertise vs. Medical Expertise: Differences

Answer 42

Chess: knowledge stored in fairly abstract templates; need to relate current position to stored knowledge and think deeply about the implications for their subsequent moves, and their opponents Medicine: knowledge stored as less abstract exemplars; face a more narrowly focused task, relating information they have to stored knowledge

Question 43

Plasticity

Answer 43

changes in structures and functions of the brain that can affect behaviour as a result of training

Question 44

Deliberate Practice

Answer 44

``` Task difficulty Informative feedback Repetition of task Correct errors Relevant knowledge base Time factor Innate talent/ability should NOT matter ```