Extentor

Question 1

Which of the following claims about confounding factors in experiments is incorrect

a) Observer influence may be a source of confounding factors in an experiment.
b) One separates the effect of confounding phenomena by making sure that the confounding effects can be separately registered.
c) One eliminates confounding phenomena by making sure that one or several of the confounding phenomena do not appear.
d) One introduces confounding phenomena to test whether the phenomenon is stable under many different conditions.

Answer 1

d) One introduces confounding phenomena to test whether the phenomenon is stable under many different conditions.

Question 2

What is plagiarism?

a) Not giving credit to your associates when they have helped you in your research.
b) Using somebody else’s words or ideas without attribution.
c) To profit from your research for personal financial benefit.
d) Lack of originality in research proposals.

Answer 2

b) Using somebody else’s words or ideas without attribution.

Question 3

What do you do when you calibrate an instrument?

a) You adjust it by measuring something where the correct measurement value is known in advance.
b) You test whether it gives the same result in repeated measurements of the same object of measurement.
c) You adjust it so that it is ready for use.
d) You make a careful analysis of the magnitude of the measurement errors.

Answer 3

a) You adjust it by measuring something where the correct measurement value is known in advance.

Question 4

When one has found a strong statistical correlation between two parameters…

a) .. .one has not proven that there is a causal relation among the parameters.
b) .. .one has a measure of the probability that there is a causal relation between the parameters.
c) .. .one has a measure of the inverse probability that there is a causal relation between the parameters.
d) .. .one has proven that there is a causal relation among the parameters.

Answer 4

a) .. .one has not proven that there is a causal relation among the parameters.

Question 5

Why do historians generally treat diaries as more reliable sources than memoirs/autobiographies?

a) Memoirs are more fact-based and emotional reactions are not described as clearly as in diaries.
b) Memoirs are often edited by the publisher and a lot can be lost in the editing.
c) Diaries tend to contain more relevant information.
d) The temporal distance to the described events is shorter in diaries.

Answer 5

d) The temporal distance to the described events is shorter in diaries.

Question 6

What is the main idea behind the deductive-nomological model for explanation?

a) Given the particular circumstances and the laws used in the explanation, the occurrence of the phenomenon to be explained was welcome; and it is in this sense that the explanation enables us to understand why we wanted the phenomenon to occur.
b) Given the particular circumstances and the laws used in the explanation, the occurrence of the phenomenon to be explained was to be expected; and it is in this sense that the explanation enables us to understand why the phenomenon occurred.
c) The understanding generated from the explanation derives from the fact that it is a means-ends explanation.
d) Explanations are always context dependent and the particular circumstances and the laws used in the explanation are chosen on the basis of what features of the situation that we are interested in.

Answer 6

b) Given the particular circumstances and the laws used in the explanation, the occurrence of the phenomenon to be explained was to be expected; and it is in this sense that the explanation enables us to understand why the phenomenon occurred.

Question 7

Relativism is the view that…

a) .. . what counts as better or worse with respect to scientific theories does not vary from individual to individual or from community to community.
b) .. . the criteria for judging the merits of theories will depend on the values or interests of the individual or community entertaining them, and the distinction between science and non-science will vary accordingly.
c) .. . asserts the relative nature of the human psyche.
d) .. . whether or not a theory is true depends on whether it corresponds to the real world that it is supposed to describe.

Answer 7

b) .. . the criteria for judging the merits of theories will depend on the values or interests of the individual or community entertaining them, and the distinction between science and non-science will vary accordingly.

Question 8

Which of the following claims is an incorrect statement about deductive, inductive and plausible (reasonable) inferences?

a) Inductive and reasonable inferences can take you from true premises to a falseconclusion.
b) Every inductive inference is an implausible inference.
c) If P must be true whenever Q_is true, then an inference from Q_to P is plausible.
d) If P can be deduced from Qi then P must be true whenever Q_is true.

Answer 8

b) Every inductive inference is an implausible inference.

Question 9

Which of the following is an example of episteme

a) Knowing who wrote the piano piece The Moonlight Sonata.
b) Knowing when your friend plays the piano well.
c) Knowing many people who play the piano very well.
d) Knowing how to play the piano.

Answer 9

a) Knowing who wrote the piano piece The Moonlight Sonata.

Question 10

What does it mean to hold variables constant in an experiment?

a) To replace a variable that has only changed insignificantly with the mean of the observed values.
b) To only take into consideration the observations where the values of the variables are in the margin of error relative to a given constant.
c) To make sure that one or more variables that can influence the outcome remains unchanged.
d) To replace a variable in a statistical analysis with a set of constants that are chosen on the basis of the outcome of the experiment.

Answer 10

c) To make sure that one or more variables that can influence the outcome remains unchanged.

Question 11

What is the “referee-system”?

a) That editors of scientific journals cooperate so that bad articles will not be accepted due to the author sending the article to so many journals in the hope that the control system will fail.
b) The editor of a scientific journal sends off incoming articles to experts in the area and bases the decision whether to publish or not on their judgment.
c) A standardized system for making references to one’s sources.
d) A standardized system for testing whether articles are plagiarised.

Answer 11

b) The editor of a scientific journal sends off incoming articles to experts in the area and bases the decision whether to publish or not on their judgment.

Question 12

What kind of scale is employed when measuring temperature in °C?

a) An interval scale.
b) A quotient scale.
c) An ordinal scale.
d) An arbitrary scale.

Answer 12

a) An interval scale.

Question 13

What is the hypothetico-deductive method for hypothesis testing?

a) Empirical consequences are deduced from one’s hypotheses and tested empirically.
b) Hypotheses are stated so that they can be deduced from other, more fundamental theories.
c) All hypotheses should be deduced from secure empirical results.
d) All claims in science can be viewed as uncertain hypotheses, from which other uncertain hypotheses can be deduced.

Answer 13

a) Empirical consequences are deduced from one’s hypotheses and tested empirically.

Question 14

What is the main criterion for distinguishing ad hoc hypotheses from other kinds of hypotheses?

a) An ad hoc hypothesis is discovered only after new data has been added.
b) An ad hoc hypothesis is discovered after the data has been collected.
c) An ad hoc hypothesis does not have any independently testable observable consequences.
d) An ad hoc hypothesis is a hypothesis without which the main hypothesis lacks observable consequences.

Answer 14

d) An ad hoc hypothesis is a hypothesis without which the main hypothesis lacks observable consequences.

Question 15

What does “falsify an hypothesis” mean?

a) To show that if the hypothesis is false one can prove it.
b) To derive unreasonable consequences from the hypothesis.
c) To find the truth-value of an hypothesis.
d) To show that the hypothesis is false.

Answer 15

d) To show that the hypothesis is false.

Question 16

What is the difference between an experiment and a controlled observation?

a) The two concepts are synonymous. There is no difference.
b) In an experiment one does not have the control over the observation variables that one has in a controlled observation.
c) In an experiment one always tries to optimize the outcome. In a controlled observation one only tries to describe the outcome.
d) In an experiment there is control over the relevant variables.

Answer 16

d) In an experiment there is control over the relevant variables.

Question 17

What is empiricism?

a) A view of science that holds that hypotheses should not be verified or falsified, but should instead be tested empirically.
b) The view that science mainly deals with falsifying hypotheses.
c) The view that science mainly deals with verifying hypotheses.
d) A view of science that emphasizes the importance of direct observations of physical reality.

Answer 17

d) A view of science that emphasizes the importance of direct observations of physical reality.

Question 18

What is a lexical definition?

a) A definition that captures how an expression is normally used.
b) A definition that stipulates how a word ought to be used.
c) A definition that has the degree of precision and correctness that is required in a dictionary.
d) A definition that is found in a dictionary or some other reliable source

Answer 18

a) A definition that captures how an expression is normally used.

Question 19

In the context of hypothesis testing, what is meant by “verification asymmetry”?

a) The observable consequence drawn from the hypothesis is of a different kind than the hypothesis.
b) Some observations verify the hypothesis while others do not.
c) The auxiliary hypotheses cannot be verified but the tested hypothesis can be verified.
d) One of the two possible statements of the hypothesis is for practical reasons easier to verify than the other.

Answer 19

d) One of the two possible statements of the hypothesis is for practical reasons easier to verify than the other.

Question 20

In the context of the methodology of science, when one speaks of “observer influence” one refers to .. .

a) .. . the fact that the observer can change the parameters in the experimental setup.
b) … the phenomenon that the method of observation can change that which is being observed, resulting in erroneous observations.
c) .. . the phenomenon that the observer interprets that which is being observed which sometimes results in erroneous observations.
d) .. . the fact that the scientific observer has considerable influence over the methods of observation.

Answer 20

b) … the phenomenon that the method of observation can change that which is being observed, resulting in erroneous observations.

Question 21

What is a functional explanation?

a) An explanation of the phenomenon or object in terms of its function.
b) An explanation of a function.
c) An explanation that has a useful function.
d) An explanation that works.

Answer 21

a) An explanation of the phenomenon or object in terms of its function.

Question 22

What is the role of values in scientific decision-making?

a) When deciding whether to accept a hypothesis, scientists should only be influenced by facts.
b) Scientists should depend on moral values as well epistemic values when determining whether to accept a hypothesis.
c) Values influence scientists’ judgements of whether or not to accept a hypothesis.
d) Science shows that values do not exist.

Answer 22

c) Values influence scientists’ judgements of whether or not to accept a hypothesis.

Question 23

What does “mass-correlation” mean?

a) One makes so many statistical tests that one can expect that at least one of them will give a significant result by mere chance.
b) A significant result that occurs when one has studied so many points in the outcome space that they, due to their sheer number, in practice cannot be randomly placed.
c) That every variable has a significant (positive or negative) correlation with a great number of other variables.
d) That every variable has a significant correlation with a great number of other variables.

Answer 23

a) One makes so many statistical tests that one can expect that at least one of them will give a significant result by mere chance.

Question 24

What kind of measurement scale is employed when one grades movies on thescale 1,2,3,4,5?

a) Measurement with an interval scale.
b) Measurement with a quotient scale.
c) It is not a measurement.
d) Measurement with an ordinal scale.

Answer 24

d) Measurement with an ordinal scale.

Question 25

What is a reduction (in the philosophy of science)?

a) Reducing the number of open hypotheses by falsifying some of them.
b) Explaining or expressing something complex in terms of something simpler or more elementary.
c) Transforming a statement about probabilities into a statement that does not refer to probabilities.
d) Reducing the number of variables measured in an experiment.

Answer 25

b) Explaining or expressing something complex in terms of something simpler or more elementary.

Question 26

Which of the following is correct (in the context of the theory of measurement)?
a) Random errors occur only with measurement methods with a high degree of
reliability and a low degree of validity.
b) Systematic errors can arise from methods of measurement with a high degree
of reliability (consistency).
c) A method of measurement cannot exhibit both random and systematic errors
d) Measurements with a high degree of reliability (consistency) also exhibit a
high degree of validity.

Answer 26

b) Systematic errors can arise from methods of measurement with a high degree

Question 27

2. What is the role of values in scientific decision-making?
   a) Science shows that values do not exist.

b) Scientists should depend on moral values as well epistemic values when de-
termining whether to accept a hypothesis.

c) When deciding whether to accept a hypothesis, scientists should only be in-
fluenced by facts.

d) Values influence scientists’ judgements of whether or not to accept a hypoth-
esis.

Answer 27

d) Values influence scientists’ judgements of whether or not to accept a hypoth-
esis.

Question 28

3. What is David Hume’s (skeptical) response to the Problem of induction?
   a) Experience, but not logic, can justify science.
   b) Science cannot be rationally justified.
   c) Inductively derived statements are only probably true.
   d) Logic, but not experience, can justify science.

Answer 28

b) Science cannot be rationally justified.

Question 29

4. What is the “referee-system”?
   a) The editor of a scientific journal sends off incoming articles to experts in the
   area and bases the decision whether to publish or not on their judgment.
   b) A standardized system for testing whether articles are plagiarised.
   c) That editors of scientific journals cooperate so that bad articles will not be
   accepted due to the author sending the article to so many journals in the
   hope that the control system will fail.
   d) A standardized system for making references to one’s sources.

Answer 29

a) The editor of a scientific journal sends off incoming articles to experts in the
area and bases the decision whether to publish or not on their judgment.

Question 30

5. Why can scientific models only satisfy some epistemic virtues, but not all, at the
   same time?
   a) Because all models idealize to some degree, they can never satisfy all epistemic
   virtues.
   b) Because there often is a trade-off between virtues: increasing one epistemic
   virtue in a model means decreasing another one.
   c) Because models are only similar to their intended targets, never identical –
   and the satisfaction of all epistemic virtues would require identity.

d) Because there cannot be a fixed scheme for designing models – model build-
ing is like “baking a cake without a recipe”.

Answer 30

b) Because there often is a trade-off between virtues: increasing one epistemic
virtue in a model means decreasing another one.

Question 31

6. What is empiricism?
   a) A view of science that holds that hypotheses should not be verified or falsified,
   but should instead be tested empirically.
   b) The view that science mainly deals with falsifying hypotheses.
   c) The view that science mainly deals with verifying hypotheses.
   d) A view of science that emphasizes the importance of direct observations of
   physical reality.

Answer 31

d) A view of science that emphasizes the importance of direct observations of
physical reality.

Question 32

7. What is plagiarism?
   a) Lack of originality in research proposals.

b) Not giving credit to your associates when they have helped you in your re-
search.

c) Using somebody else’s words or ideas without attribution.
d) To profit from your research for personal financial benefit.

Answer 32

c) Using somebody else’s words or ideas without attribution.

Question 33

8. What does it mean to hold variables constant in an experiment?

a) To make sure that one or more variables that can influence the outcome re-
mains unchanged.

b) To replace a variable in a statistical analysis with a set of constants that are
chosen on the basis of the outcome of the experiment.

c) To only take into consideration the observations where the values of the vari-
ables are in the margin of error relative to a given constant.

d) To replace a variable that has only changed insignificantly with the mean of
the observed values.

Answer 33

a) To make sure that one or more variables that can influence the outcome re-
mains unchanged.

Question 34

9. What is a reduction (in the philosophy of science)?
   a) Explaining or expressing something complex in terms of something simpler
   or more elementary.
   b) Transforming a statement about probabilities into a statement that does not
   refer to probabilities.
   c) Reducing the number of open hypotheses by falsifying some of them.
   d) Reducing the number of variables measured in an experiment.

Answer 34

a) Explaining or expressing something complex in terms of something simpler
or more elementary.

Question 35

10. What is the main criterion for distinguishing ad hoc hypotheses from other kinds
    of hypotheses?
    a) An ad hoc hypothesis does not have any independently testable observable
    consequences.
    b) An ad hoc hypothesis is discovered only after new data has been added.
    c) An ad hoc hypothesis is a hypothesis without which the main hypothesis
    lacks observable consequences.
    d) An ad hoc hypothesis is discovered after the data has been collected.

Answer 35

a) An ad hoc hypothesis does not have any independently testable observable
consequences.

Question 36

11. Why is philosophical scepticism not a good method for empirical science?
    a) If you question nearly everything you do not have any tools left for gaining
    empirical knowledge.
    b) Philosophical scepticism never questions any empirical knowledge.
    c) Philosophical scepticism only questions everyday knowledge, not scientific
    knowledge.
    d) The philosophical sceptics never use any mathematical models and without
    these one cannot attain empirical knowledge.

Answer 36

a) If you question nearly everything you do not have any tools left for gaining
empirical knowledge.

Question 37

12. In the context of the methodology of science, when one speaks of “observer
    influence” one refers to . . .
    a) . . . the phenomenon that the method of observation can change that which is
    being observed, resulting in erroneous observations.
    b) . . . the fact that the scientific observer has considerable influence over the
    methods of observation.
    c) . . . the phenomenon that the observer interprets that which is being observed
    which sometimes results in erroneous observations.
    d) . . . the fact that the observer can change the parameters in the experimental
    setup.

Answer 37

a) . . . the phenomenon that the method of observation can change that which is
being observed, resulting in erroneous observations.

Question 38

13. What is the difference between an experiment and a controlled observation?
    a) In an experiment one does not have the control over the observation variables
    that one has in a controlled observation.
    b) In an experiment one always tries to optimize the outcome. In a controlled
    observation one only tries to describe the outcome.
    c) The two concepts are synonymous. There is no difference.
    d) In an experiment there is control over the relevant variables.

Answer 38

d) In an experiment there is control over the relevant variables.

Question 39

14. What does one mean when one says that observations are theory dependent?
    a) Observations are planned to test a theory or hypothesis.
    b) The possibility of an observation depends on whether a given theory is correct
    or not.

c) Observations are planned so that they can contribute to theoretical explana-
tions, and do not just give rise to statistical correlations.

d) The interpretation of the observations depend on the scientific theories that
one is using.

Answer 39

d) The interpretation of the observations depend on the scientific theories that
one is using.

Question 40

15. What kind of scale is employed when measuring temperature in K (Kelvin)?
    a) An ordinal scale.
    b) An interval scale.
    c) A quotient (ratio) scale.
    d) An absolute scale.

Answer 40

c) A quotient (ratio) scale.

Question 41

16. According to the deductive-nomological model for explanation. . .
    a) . . .an explanation is not scientific if it is not derived from observations.
    b) . . .an explanation subsumes a phenomenon under a covering law.
    c) . . .an explanation is good only if it can be used in decision making.
    d) . . .an explanation is always subjective.

Answer 41

b) . . .an explanation subsumes a phenomenon under a covering law.

Question 42

17. When one has found a strong statistical correlation between two parameters. . .
    a) . . .one has a measure of the probability that there is a causal relation between
    the parameters.
    b) . . .one has a measure of the inverse probability that there is a causal relation
    between the parameters.
    c) . . .one has proven that there is a causal relation among the parameters.
    d) . . .one has not proven that there is a causal relation among the parameters.

Answer 42

d) . . .one has not proven that there is a causal relation among the parameters.

Question 43

18. What did the Vienna School (the logical positivists) think of verification and
    falsification?
    a) Research should strive to verify scientific hypotheses, and non-verifiable claims
    have no place in science.
    b) Research should aim at falsifying scientific hypotheses.
    c) Hypotheses should be evaluated with regard to their logical structure instead
    of by verification or falsification.
    d) Neither verification nor falsification is possible for scientific hypotheses if
    they are formulated in a logically correct (“logically positive”) way.

Answer 43

a) Research should strive to verify scientific hypotheses, and non-verifiable claims
have no place in science.

Question 44

19. The difference between an inductive and deductive argument is that. . .
    a) Inductive arguments always give false conclusions while deductive arguments
    often give true conclusions.
    b) Deductive arguments always give true conclusions while inductive arguments
    sometimes do not give true conclusions.
    c) If the premises of a deductive argument are true, then the conclusion is true
    while in an inductive argument the premises may be true but the conclusion
    false.
    d) Only inductive arguments can be used in science.

Answer 44

c) If the premises of a deductive argument are true, then the conclusion is true
while in an inductive argument the premises may be true but the conclusion
false.

Question 45

20. What does “mass-correlation” mean?
    a) One makes so many statistical tests that one can expect that at least one of
    them will give a significant result by mere chance.
    b) A significant result that occurs when one has studied so many points in the
    outcome space that they, due to their sheer number, in practice cannot be
    randomly placed.
    c) That every variable has a significant (positive or negative) correlation with a
    great number of other variables.
    d) That every variable has a significant correlation with a great number of other
    variables.

Answer 45

a) One makes so many statistical tests that one can expect that at least one of
them will give a significant result by mere chance.

Question 46

21. In what way can the classical definition of knowledge be said to incorporate an
    evaluative component?
    a) It is good to have knowledge.
    b) A belief must be justified to count as knowledge.
    c) Knowledge can only be acquired through the senses.
    d) It is not possible to have scientific knowledge.

Answer 46

b) A belief must be justified to count as knowledge.

Question 47

22. What must be satisfied in order to call an experiment repeatable?
    a) That it can be repeated with essentially the same result by other competent
    persons that follow the given description of the experiment.
    b) That it is sufficiently well described that other people will be able to repeat it
    (though not necessarily with the same result).
    c) That the person reporting the experiment can truly report that the experiment
    has been repeated a number of times.

d) That the person reporting the experiment in principle could repeat it a num-
ber of times (but hasn’t necessarily done this).

Answer 47

b) That it is sufficiently well described that other people will be able to repeat it
(though not necessarily with the same result).

Question 48

23. What is the hypothetico-deductive method for hypothesis testing?
    a) All claims in science can be viewed as uncertain hypotheses, from which other
    uncertain hypotheses can be deduced.

b) Hypotheses are stated so that they can be deduced from other, more funda-
mental theories.

c) Empirical consequences are deduced from one’s hypotheses and tested em-
pirically.

d) All hypotheses should be deduced from secure empirical results.

Answer 48

c) Empirical consequences are deduced from one’s hypotheses and tested em-
pirically.

Question 49

24. What is meant when one says that a model is idealized?

a) One interprets in a positive spirit, that is, one strives for a reasonable inter-
pretation of what the author is claiming.

b) When testing an hypothesis one focuses on its content and not on its linguis-
tic formulation.

c) One has disregarded some aspects of the object of study to achieve a simpler
and more manageable description.
d) When testing an hypothesis one focuses on its content and not on any other
features.

Answer 49

c) One has disregarded some aspects of the object of study to achieve a simpler
and more manageable description.

Question 50

25. Inductive arguments. . .
    a) . . . need not be logically valid.
    b) . . . do not lead to true conclusions.
    c) . . . are logically valid.
    d) . . . are often logically valid.

Answer 50

a) . . . need not be logically valid.

Question 51

Explanations in the technological domain differ from those in the natural sci-
ences mainly by. . .

a) . . . having a smaller scope.
b) . . . being described graphically rather than in writing.
c) . . . not necessarily being in the form of mathematical formulas.
d) . . . allowing agents’ intentions to play a major part in the explanation.

Answer 51

d) . . . allowing agents’ intentions to play a major part in the explanation.

Question 52

Which proposition about models in technology and the natural sciences is false?
a) Models in technology, as well as in the natural sciences, can be regarded as
simplified representations of studied phenomena.
b) Models in the natural sciences as well as in technology should have as large
scope as possible.
c) Technological models may be based on folk theories or obsolete science,
whereas models in natural sciences may not.
d) The best technological model is often the one that leads to a result that is
good enough, with the least use of valuable resources.

Answer 52

b) Models in the natural sciences as well as in technology should have as large
scope as possible.

Question 53

What is plagiarism?

a) Changing or misreporting data or results.
b) Changing or making up data.
c) Making up scientific data or results.
d) Using the ideas of others without giving appropriate credit.

Answer 53

d) Using the ideas of others without giving appropriate credit.

Question 54

What is methodological individualism?
a) The claim that every social science method must be adjusted to the individual
context of the subject under study.

b) The claim that all social phenomena are constituted by the behaviour of in-
dividual actors and their underlying beliefs and motivations.

c) The claim that type-type regularities in the social sciences are undermined by
the multiple realisability of social entities, and that social phenomena should
therefore be studied individually.
d) The claim that social phenomena can only be accurately explained by showing
how they result from the behavior of individual actors and their underlying
beliefs and motivations.

Answer 54

d) The claim that social phenomena can only be accurately explained by showing
how they result from the behavior of individual actors and their underlying
beliefs and motivations.

Question 55

What is a functional explanation in sociology?
a) In sociology, a functional explanation is an explanation of how an institution
functions.
b) In sociology, functional explanation involves finding and describing the role
of the individuals that are responsible for how an institution functions.

c) In sociology, functional explanation involves explaining the role of individ-
uals, or smaller groups, through the function they perform in maintaining

larger groups or society as a whole.
d) In sociology, a functional explanation is an explanation that works.

Answer 55

c) In sociology, functional explanation involves explaining the role of individ-
uals, or smaller groups, through the function they perform in maintaining

larger groups or society as a whole.

Question 56

6. What does it mean to say that paradigms are incommensurable?

a) It is not possible to understand one paradigm through the framework of an-
other paradigm.

b) It is not possible to distinguish science from pseudoscience within one and
the same paradigm.
c) Paradigms never fully correspond to the real world.
d) It is not possible to exactly define what a paradigm is.

Answer 56

a) It is not possible to understand one paradigm through the framework of an-
other paradigm.

Question 57

According to scientific realism, theoretical entities, such as electrons, are . . .
a) entities that could or could not exist but that are a part of the theory only
because they are useful.
b) entities without a fixed reference.
c) real and existing entities.
d) non-existing entities.

Answer 57

c) real and existing entities.

Question 58

What is meant by the term “underdetermination of theories by observation”?

a) The view that observation is influenced by the theoretical framework em-
braced by the observer.

b) The view that each set of observable data can be correctly described by only
one theory or set of claims.
c) The view that theories do not need to describe any observable data.
d) The view that one set of observable data can be described correctly by several
theories, all of them inconsistent with each other.

Answer 58

d) The view that one set of observable data can be described correctly by several
theories, all of them inconsistent with each other.

Question 59

Why can scientific models only satisfy some epistemic virtues, but not all, at the
same time?

a) Because there cannot be a fixed scheme for designing models – model build-
ing is like “baking a cake without a recipe”.

b) Because all models idealize to some degree, they can never satisfy all epistemic
virtues.
c) Because models are only similar to their intended targets, never identical –
and the satisfaction of all epistemic virtues would require identity.
d) Because there often is a trade-off between virtues: increasing one epistemic
virtue in a model means decreasing another one.

Answer 59

d) Because there often is a trade-off between virtues: increasing one epistemic
virtue in a model means decreasing another one.

Question 60

In the context of hypothesis testing, what is meant by “verification asymmetry”?
a) Some observations verify the hypothesis while others do not.
b) The observable consequence drawn from the hypothesis is of a different kind
than the hypothesis.
c) The auxiliary hypotheses cannot be verified but the tested hypothesis can be
verified.
d) One of the two possible statements of the hypothesis is for practical reasons
easier to verify than the other.

Answer 60

d) One of the two possible statements of the hypothesis is for practical reasons
easier to verify than the other.

Question 61

Which of the following claims is an incorrect statement about deductive, induc-
tive and plausible (reasonable) inferences?

a) Inductive and reasonable inferences can take you from true premises to a false
conclusion.
b) Every inductive inference is an implausible inference.
c) If P must be true whenever Q is true, then an inference from Q to P is
plausible.
d) If P can be deduced from Q, then P must be true whenever Q is true.

Answer 61

b) Every inductive inference is an implausible inference.

Question 62

What must be satisfied in order to call an experiment repeatable?

a) That the person reporting the experiment in principle could repeat it a num-
ber of times (but hasn’t necessarily done this).

b) That the person reporting the experiment can truly report that the experi-
ment has been repeated a number of times.

c) That it can be repeated with essentially the same result by other competent
persons that follow the given description of the experiment.
d) That it is sufficiently well described that other people will be able to repeat it
(though not necessarily with the same result).

Answer 62

c) That it can be repeated with essentially the same result by other competent
persons that follow the given description of the experiment.

Question 63

What is the main criterion for distinguishing ad hoc hypotheses from other kinds
of hypotheses?
a) An ad hoc hypothesis does not have any independently testable observable
consequences.
b) An ad hoc hypothesis is discovered only after new data has been added.
c) An ad hoc hypothesis is a hypothesis without which the main hypothesis
lacks observable consequences.
d) An ad hoc hypothesis is discovered after the data has been collected.

Answer 63

a) An ad hoc hypothesis does not have any independently testable observable
consequences.

Question 64

Which of the following claims about systematic error (bias) and random error is
incorrect?
a) A method of measurement can have both systematic and random errors.
b) A method of measurement with a high degree of validity is associated with a
low degree of systematic error.
c) A method of measurement with a high degree of reliability (consistency) is
associated with a small random error.
d) A method of measurement cannot have both systematic and random errors.

Answer 64

d) A method of measurement cannot have both systematic and random errors.

Question 65

Which of the following is a necessary characteristic of a symbolic model?
a) It symbolises rather than represents reality.
b) In addition to expressing properties that can be expressed mathematically, it
also expresses other properties (e.g. aesthetic properties).
c) It uses symbols.
d) It can be correctly interpreted in several non-contradictory ways.

Answer 65

c) It uses symbols.

Question 66

What is the problem of external validity for scientific experiments?

a) How to justify an inference from an experiment to a relevant real-world tar-
get.

b) How to avoid experimental artefacts, given the difficulty of control.
c) How to make correct inferences about the experiment, when outside factors
confound results.
d) How to separate internal from external factors in an experiment.

Answer 66

a) How to justify an inference from an experiment to a relevant real-world tar-
get.

Question 67

What does a false-negative (type II error) result mean?

a) The result is in line with what was expected, but this is because of an experi-
mental error.

b) The result suggests that a phenomenon exists, even though it does not exist.
c) The result suggests that a phenomenon does not exist, even though it does
exist.
d) The difference between an experimental outcome and the actual value (the
measurement error) is greater than zero

Answer 67

c) The result suggests that a phenomenon does not exist, even though it does
exist.

Question 68

Which of the following is correct (in the context of the theory of measurement)?
a) Measurements with a high degree of reliability (consistency) also exhibit a
high degree of validity.
b) A method of measurement cannot exhibit both random and systematic errors
c) Random errors occur only with measurement methods with a high degree of
reliability and a low degree of validity.
d) Systematic errors can arise from methods of measurement with a high degree
of reliability (consistency).

Answer 68

d) Systematic errors can arise from methods of measurement with a high degree
of reliability (consistency).

Question 69

What is Karl Popper’s response to the Problem of induction?
a) Universal statements about the world can be verified by combining induction
and deduction.
b) Science should not rely on induction, but exclusively upon deduction.
c) In actual scientific practice, the Problem of induction is not relevant.
d) There should be no scientific method.

Answer 69

b) Science should not rely on induction, but exclusively upon deduction.

Question 70

What kind of scale is employed when one states the size of a building in terms
of the cubic meters of air it contains?
a) It is not a measurement.
b) Measurement with an ordinal scale.
c) Measurement with an interval scale.
d) Measurement with a quotient (ratio) scale.

Answer 70

d) Measurement with a quotient (ratio) scale.

Question 71

Controlled variation in an experiment means that. . .

a) . . .the experiment strives to determine variation.
b) . . .the experiment is performed with different input values.
c) . . .the experiment has outcomes that varies in a controlled manner.
d) . . .the experiment involves various methods.

Answer 71

b) . . .the experiment is performed with different input values.

Question 72

Relativism is the view that. . .
a) . . . whether or not a theory is true depends on whether it corresponds to the
real world that it is supposed to describe.
b) . . . what counts as better or worse with respect to scientific theories does not
vary from individual to individual or from community to community.
c) . . . asserts the relative nature of the human psyche.
d) . . . the criteria for judging the merits of theories will depend on the values or

interests of the individual or community entertaining them, and the distinc-
tion between science and non-science will vary accordingly.

Answer 72

a) . . . whether or not a theory is true depends on whether it corresponds to the
real world that it is supposed to describe.

Question 73

What can the history of science tell us about the limits of falsificationism?

a) Scientific theories are never easily falsified, since there are always strong eco-
nomical and/or political interests in favour of existing theories.

b) Falsificationism does not say anything about what characterizes scientific
progress, whereas the history of science provides us with a timeline of ever
progressing development.

c) Many of the great scientific theories could justifiably have been falsified by ar-
guments that were considered sound at the time the theories were presented.

d) The scientific community has always practiced a strict, though not explicit,

form of falsificationism and therefore the philosophical theory of falsifica-
tionism does not make a new contribution to scientific methodology.

Answer 73

c) Many of the great scientific theories could justifiably have been falsified by ar-
guments that were considered sound at the time the theories were presented.

Question 74

Why is philosophical scepticism not a good method for empirical science?
a) Philosophical scepticism never questions any empirical knowledge.
b) If you question nearly everything you do not have any tools left for gaining
empirical knowledge.
c) Philosophical scepticism only questions everyday knowledge, not scientific
knowledge.
d) The philosophical sceptics never use any mathematical models and without
these one cannot attain empirical knowledge.

Answer 74

b) If you question nearly everything you do not have any tools left for gaining
empirical knowledge.

Question 75

What is David Hume’s (skeptical) response to the Problem of induction?

a) Logic, but not experience, can justify science.
b) Inductively derived statements are only probably true.
c) Experience, but not logic, can justify science.
d) Science cannot be rationally justified.

Answer 75

d) Science cannot be rationally justified.

Question 76

What characterizes technological science and makes it different from the natural
sciences? Technological science. . .
a) . . . is a product of the 20th century; a few hundred years younger than the
natural sciences.
b) . . . manages with close approximations, exact solutions are generally not needed.
c) . . . allows for greater idealizations than natural sciences.
d) . . . is a collective noun for applied natural sciences.

Answer 76

b) . . . manages with close approximations, exact solutions are generally not needed.

Question 77

Technological artefacts (here we are not referring to experimental artefacts) are
often described as having a dual nature. This means that they. . .
a) . . . are physical or abstract.
b) . . . can be regarded as functional as well as physical objects.
c) . . . are created to be manufactured as well as used.
d) . . . can be used for good as well as for bad purposes.

Answer 77

b) . . . can be regarded as functional as well as physical objects.

Question 78

What is plagiarism?

a) Changing or making up data.
b) Changing or misreporting data or results.
c) Making up scientific data or results.
d) Using the ideas of others without giving appropriate credit.

Answer 78

d) Using the ideas of others without giving appropriate credit.

Question 79

A theory is falsifiable (in Popper’s sense). . .

a) . . .only if it is false.
b) . . .only if it has observable consequences.
c) . . .only if it is not false.
d) . . .only if it has no observable consequences.

Answer 79

b) . . .only if it has observable consequences.

Question 80

What is the main argument of the ‘Lucas Critique’?

a) That regularities between social aggregates portrait economic agents as irra-
tional.

b) That social aggregates may exhibit rational behaviour, even if the individuals
constituting this aggregate do not.
c) That macroeconomics relies too much on the representative agent model
when making policy recommendations.

d) That regularities between social aggregates are not sufficiently stable for pol-
icy conclusions to be derived from them.

Answer 80

d) That regularities between social aggregates are not sufficiently stable for pol-
icy conclusions to be derived from them.

Question 81

What does “naturalism” typically mean in social science?
a) That human beings belong to an objective natural order and that the social
world is continuous with, or arises from, the physical world.
b) That the task of human beings is to preserve nature and make sure that
present progress must be consistent with sustained development.
c) That human beings belong to an objective natural order but that the social
world must be viewed as something essentially different (and as not arising
from), the physical world.
d) That human beings behave naturally only when they are not being observed.

Answer 81

a) That human beings belong to an objective natural order and that the social
world is continuous with, or arises from, the physical world.

Question 82

According to an empiricist, the referent of a theoretical term such as “gravity” . . .
a) is identical to sensory experience.

b) does not need to be related to a property of which we can have sensory expe-
rience.

c) must not be related to some property of which we can have sensory experi-
ence.

d) must be related to some property of which we can have sensory experience.

Answer 82

d) must be related to some property of which we can have sensory experience.

Question 83

The Inductive-Statistical (I-S) model for explanation . . .
a) expresses the explanation in the form of an inductive argument.
b) produces explanations that move from the general to the particular.
c) produces explanations in which the conclusion is implied by the premises by
necessity.
d) produces explanations that are always true.

Answer 83

a) expresses the explanation in the form of an inductive argument.

Question 84

The pragmatic account of explanation . . .

a) considers explanations as independent of context.
b) considers explanations as structured as a deductive argument.

c) cannot successfully identify what distinguishes scientific from unscientific ex-
planations.

d) claims that explanation must contain a statistical law.

Answer 84

c) cannot successfully identify what distinguishes scientific from unscientific ex-
planations.

Question 85

What is the “referee-system”?
a) A standardized system for making references to one’s sources.
b) That editors of scientific journals cooperate so that bad articles will not be
accepted due to the author sending the article to so many journals in the
hope that the control system will fail.
c) The editor of a scientific journal sends off incoming articles to experts in the
area and bases the decision whether to publish or not on their judgment.
d) A standardized system for testing whether articles are plagiarised.

Answer 85

c) The editor of a scientific journal sends off incoming articles to experts in the
area and bases the decision whether to publish or not on their judgment.

Question 86

What is a “crucial/critical experiment”?
a) An experiment that, if performed incorrectly, can result in critical damage to
the research project.
b) An experiment that must be carried out before other (related) experiments
can be performed.
c) An experiment that gives rise to new theories when it is performed.
d) An experiment that tells us whether a theory should be accepted or rejected.

Answer 86

d) An experiment that tells us whether a theory should be accepted or rejected.

Question 87

In the context of the methodology of science, when one speaks of “observer
influence” one refers to . . .
a) . . . the fact that the scientific observer has considerable influence over the
methods of observation.
b) . . . the phenomenon that the method of observation can change that which is
being observed, resulting in erroneous observations.
c) . . . the phenomenon that the observer interprets that which is being observed
which sometimes results in erroneous observations.
d) . . . the fact that the observer can change the parameters in the experimental
setup.

Answer 87

b) . . . the phenomenon that the method of observation can change that which is
being observed, resulting in erroneous observations.

Question 88

What is a functional explanation?

a) An explanation of the phenomenon or object in terms of its function.
b) An explanation that works.
c) An explanation that has a useful function.
d) An explanation of a function.

Answer 88

a) An explanation of the phenomenon or object in terms of its function.

Question 89

What can the history of science tell us about the limits of falsificationism?
a) The scientific community has always practiced a strict, though not explicit,

form of falsificationism and therefore the philosophical theory of falsifica-
tionism does not make a new contribution to scientific methodology.

b) Scientific theories are never easily falsified, since there are always strong eco-
nomical and/or political interests in favour of existing theories.

c) Many of the great scientific theories could justifiably have been falsified by ar-
guments that were considered sound at the time the theories were presented.

d) Falsificationism does not say anything about what characterizes scientific
progress, whereas the history of science provides us with a timeline of ever
progressing development.

Answer 89

c) Many of the great scientific theories could justifiably have been falsified by ar-
guments that were considered sound at the time the theories were presented.

Question 90

What does “falsify an hypothesis” mean?

a) To show that the hypothesis is false.
b) To derive unreasonable consequences from the hypothesis.
c) To show that if the hypothesis is false one can prove it.
d) To find the truth-value of an hypothesis.

Answer 90

a) To show that the hypothesis is false.

Question 91

What is empiricism?
a) A view of science that holds that hypotheses should not be verified or falsified,
but should instead be tested empirically.
b) The view that science mainly deals with falsifying hypotheses.
c) The view that science mainly deals with verifying hypotheses.
d) A view of science that emphasizes the importance of direct observations of
physical reality.

Answer 91

d) A view of science that emphasizes the importance of direct observations of
physical reality.

Question 92

Controlled variation in an experiment means that. . .

a) . . .the experiment strives to determine variation.
b) . . .the experiment has outcomes that varies in a controlled manner.
c) . . .the experiment is performed with different input values.
d) . . .the experiment involves various methods.

Answer 92

c) . . .the experiment is performed with different input values.

Question 93

What kind of scale is employed when one states the size of a building in terms
of the cubic meters of air it contains?
a) Measurement with a quotient (ratio) scale.
b) Measurement with an interval scale.
c) It is not a measurement.
d) Measurement with an ordinal scale.

Answer 93

a) Measurement with a quotient (ratio) scale.

Question 94

When is a result statistically significant at the 5%-level?

a) There is at least a 5% probability that the result would occur by chance (ran-
domly) .

b) There is at most a 5% probability that one would get the same result if the
study was repeated.
c) There is at least a 5% probability that one would get the same result if the
study was repeated.

d) There is at most a 5% probability that the result would occur by chance (ran-
domly) .

Answer 94

d) There is at most a 5% probability that the result would occur by chance (ran-
domly) .

Question 95

By “operationalizing” a concept or a property one. . .
a) . . .provides a method for deciding whether the concept or property applies to
an object or phenomenon, or for measuring to what extent an object has the
property.
b) . . .provides a method for testing whether a concept or property is useful in
science.
c) . . .invents a new concept or property.
d) . . .provides a concept or property suitable for operational settings.

Answer 95

a) . . .provides a method for deciding whether the concept or property applies to
an object or phenomenon, or for measuring to what extent an object has the
property.

Question 96

When one has found a strong statistical correlation between two parameters. . .
a) . . .one has not proven that there is a causal relation among the parameters.
b) . . .one has proven that there is a causal relation among the parameters.
c) . . .one has a measure of the probability that there is a causal relation between
the parameters.
d) . . .one has a measure of the inverse probability that there is a causal relation
between the parameters.

Answer 96

a) . . .one has not proven that there is a causal relation among the parameters.

Question 97

What is the difference between an experiment and a controlled observation?
a) In an experiment one does not have the control over the observation variables
that one has in a controlled observation.
b) The two concepts are synonymous. There is no difference.
c) In an experiment one always tries to optimize the outcome. In a controlled
observation one only tries to describe the outcome.
d) In an experiment there is control over the relevant variables.

Answer 97

d) In an experiment there is control over the relevant variables.

Question 98

What is vagueness?
a) A word has several different and distinct meanings.
b) The borders for the correct usage of a word are not precise.
c) A word cannot be translated into another language without a change of
meaning.
d) A word is used in different ways by different individuals.

Answer 98

b) The borders for the correct usage of a word are not precise.

Question 99

Which of the following claims about confounding factors in experiments is in-
correct?

a) One eliminates confounding phenomena by making sure that one or several
of the confounding phenomena do not appear.
b) One introduces confounding phenomena to test whether the phenomenon is
stable under many different conditions.
c) One separates the effect of confounding phenomena by making sure that the
confounding effects can be separately registered.
d) Observer influence may be a source of confounding factors in an experiment.

Answer 99

b) One introduces confounding phenomena to test whether the phenomenon is
stable under many different conditions.

Question 100

Why can scientific models only satisfy some epistemic virtues, but not all, at the
same time?
a) Because there often is a trade-off between virtues: increasing one epistemic
virtue in a model means decreasing another one.
b) Because all models idealize to some degree, they can never satisfy all epistemic
virtues.
c) Because models are only similar to their intended targets, never identical –
and the satisfaction of all epistemic virtues would require identity.

d) Because there cannot be a fixed scheme for designing models – model build-
ing is like “baking a cake without a recipe”.

Answer 100

a) Because there often is a trade-off between virtues: increasing one epistemic
virtue in a model means decreasing another one.

Question 101

What is true about the classical definition of knowledge? Select all correct
alternatives. According to the classical definition of knowledge . . .
a) . . . if you know that it is raining then you are justified in believing that
it is raining.
b) . . . you know that it is raining at place P at time t only if you have
observed that it is raining at place P at time t.
c) . . . if it is not raining at place P at time t then you do not know that it
is raining at place P at time t.
d) . . . if you know that it is raining at place P at time t, then it is raining
at place P at time t.

Answer 101

a) . . . if you know that it is raining then you are justified in believing that
it is raining.
c) . . . if it is not raining at place P at time t then you do not know that it
is raining at place P at time t.
d) . . . if you know that it is raining at place P at time t, then it is raining
at place P at time t.

Question 102

Does methodology aim to eliminate all errors in science? Select all correct
answers.
a) No. Available evidence often gives us reason to choose one method over
the other, but these reasons are often neither complete nor certain.
b) No. One argument for this is that science cannot eliminate all errors,
only manage potential sources of error.
c) No. Almost all our beliefs are fallible, so it would be impossible to
completely eliminate error.
d) No. Errors are a necessary part of accurate claims.

Answer 102

a) No. Available evidence often gives us reason to choose one method over
the other, but these reasons are often neither complete nor certain.
b) No. One argument for this is that science cannot eliminate all errors,
only manage potential sources of error.
c) No. Almost all our beliefs are fallible, so it would be impossible to
completely eliminate error.

Question 103

What distinguishes valid deductive inferences from inductive inferences?
Select all true claims.

a) While justifications of inductive inference rules are controversial, deduc-
tive inference rules are “natural” in the sense that they do not require

any justification.
b) Valid deduction is truth-preserving, justified induction is fallible.
c) Generalisation is an example of inductive inferences, modus tollens is
an example of deductive inferences.
d) Modus tollens is an example of an inductive inference, projection is an
example of a deductive inference.

Answer 103

b) Valid deduction is truth-preserving, justified induction is fallible.
c) Generalisation is an example of inductive inferences, modus tollens is
an example of deductive inferences.

Question 104

What is correct about the hypothetico-deductive method for hypothesis
testing? Select all true claims.
a) Operationalization of not directly observable features of interest is
necessary for the hypothetico-deductive method.
b) Observable consequences are deduced from one’s hypotheses and tested
empirically.
c) If the outcome of a test (i.e. an experiment) is negative, this does not
necessarily mean that the hypothesis should be rejected. The negative
result might be explained by an auxiliary hypothesis being false.
d) The method determines how hypotheses can be deduced from other,
more fundamental theories.

Answer 104

a) Operationalization of not directly observable features of interest is
necessary for the hypothetico-deductive method.
b) Observable consequences are deduced from one’s hypotheses and tested
empirically.
c) If the outcome of a test (i.e. an experiment) is negative, this does not
necessarily mean that the hypothesis should be rejected. The negative
result might be explained by an auxiliary hypothesis being false.

Question 105

What is true about ”Hume’s Problem of Induction”-argument? Select all
true claims. Hume argued . . .

a) . . . that there is no necessary connection between past and future obser-
vations.

b) . . . that induction necessarily led to false beliefs.
c) . . . that inductive inference practices in science should be replaced by
deductive inference practices.
d) . . . that in our inferences, we rely on inference rules that themselves
require justification.

Answer 105

a) . . . that there is no necessary connection between past and future obser-
vations.

d) . . . that in our inferences, we rely on inference rules that themselves
require justification.

Question 106

What is true about falsifiable statements? Select all true claims. Falsifiable
statements . . .
a) . . . are not true.
b) . . . are neither necessarily true nor necessarily false.
c) . . . may be false.
d) . . . are testable even though they may be about something not directly
observable.

Answer 106

b) . . . are neither necessarily true nor necessarily false.
c) . . . may be false.
d) . . . are testable even though they may be about something not directly
observable.

Question 107

What kind of measurement scale is employed when one ranks movies on
the scale 1,2,3,4,5? Select all correct alternatives.
a) A ratio scale.
b) A scale that represents less information than a ratio scale.
c) An interval scale.
d) The kind of scale that is also used when describing the final positions
in a marathon.

Answer 107

b) A scale that represents less information than a ratio scale.

d) The kind of scale that is also used when describing the final positions
in a marathon.

Question 108

Which of the following claims about systematic error is correct? Select all
true claims.

a) Systematic error can be reduced by repeating measurements and aver-
aging over outcomes.

b) Systematic errors are (in principle) predictable and deviations from the
true value are typically constant or proportional to the true value.
c) If a cause of the systematic error is identified, then it can usually be
corrected.
d) Systematic error affects the degree to which repeated measurements
under unchanged conditions show the same results.

Answer 108

b) Systematic errors are (in principle) predictable and deviations from the
true value are typically constant or proportional to the true value.
c) If a cause of the systematic error is identified, then it can usually be
corrected.

Question 109

Which factors would threaten the internal validity of inferences from an
experiment (in contrast to an observational study)? Select all correct
alternatives.
a) Misinterpreting experimental observations.
b) Misunderstanding the influence of experimental manipulation.
c) Failing to (materially) control background conditions.
d) Misunderstanding the influence of background conditions.

Answer 109

a) Misinterpreting experimental observations.
b) Misunderstanding the influence of experimental manipulation.
c) Failing to (materially) control background conditions.
d) Misunderstanding the influence of background conditions.

Question 110

What is correct about the repeatability of experiments? Select all correct
alternatives.
a) The criterion of repeatability is sufficiently satisfied when a person
reports that she has done a number of trials with different experimental
setups for each trial and out of these trials succeeded in reproducing
the same result twice.
b) Repeatability of an experiment can be determined by analysing the
published material about this experiment.
c) If an experiment is repeatable, then it is also reproducible.
d) An experiment is repeatable if other competent persons that follow the
given description of the experiment can repeat it.

Answer 110

b) Repeatability of an experiment can be determined by analysing the
published material about this experiment.
d) An experiment is repeatable if other competent persons that follow the
given description of the experiment can repeat it.

Question 111

What are good (epistemic or non-epistemic) reasons why scientists build and
investigate models of targets they are interested in, rather than investigating
these targets directly? Select all correct alternatives.
a) Targets can never be manipulated directly.
b) It is too expensive to handle some targets directly.
c) Science is interested in representations, not in the targets themselves.
d) Some targets are too complex to gain knowledge from their direct
investigation.

Answer 111

b) It is too expensive to handle some targets directly.
d) Some targets are too complex to gain knowledge from their direct
investigation.

Question 112

What is true about valid isolating models? Select all correct claims.
a) Although of theoretical interest, isolating models play no relevant role
for any of the engineering sciences.
b) A valid isolating model is dissimilar to its target and still licenses
relevant (externally) valid inferences.
c) A valid isolating model singles out one aspect of the target, ignoring all
the others.
d) A valid isolating model represents the workings of the isolated factor
accurately.

Answer 112

b) A valid isolating model is dissimilar to its target and still licenses
relevant (externally) valid inferences.
c) A valid isolating model singles out one aspect of the target, ignoring all
the others.
d) A valid isolating model represents the workings of the isolated factor
accurately.

Question 113

Why should hypotheses be tested statistically? Select all correct options.
a) Statistics is the only way how to justify inductive inferences.
b) Statistical accounts often impose weaker demands on hypothesis testing
than (non-statistical) accounts of confirmation and falsification.
c) Using probability calculus is a way to model and calculate the degree
of confirmation that some evidence confers to a hypothesis.
d) Some hypotheses only make claims about distributions of outcomes.

Answer 113

b) Statistical accounts often impose weaker demands on hypothesis testing
than (non-statistical) accounts of confirmation and falsification.
c) Using probability calculus is a way to model and calculate the degree
of confirmation that some evidence confers to a hypothesis.
d) Some hypotheses only make claims about distributions of outcomes.

Question 114

Which claims are true about Bayesian statistics? Select all correct alterna-
tives.

a) Bayesian statistics can evaluate a potentially large set of competing
hypotheses.
b) The main goal in Bayesian hypothesis evaluation is to decide whether
to accept a single hypothesis as either true or false.
c) Bayesian statistics offers an unambiguous algorithm for assigning prior
probabilities to hypotheses.
d) Bayesian statistics interprets probabilities as “degrees of belief” or
“subjective confidence in hypotheses”.

Answer 114

a) Bayesian statistics can evaluate a potentially large set of competing
hypotheses.

d) Bayesian statistics interprets probabilities as “degrees of belief” or
“subjective confidence in hypotheses”.

Question 115

What is true of the Deductive-Nomological (DN) Account of Explanation?
Select all true answers.
a) The DN account is problematic, because some cases satisfy the DN

account’s conditions, but intuitively do not constitute genuine explana-
tions.

b) According to the DN account, understanding of a phenomenon is
achieved by having reasons for why the phenomenon was expected on a
lawful basis.
c) According to the DN account, an explanation consists in the deduction
of the explanandum from laws of nature and initial conditions.

d) According to the DN account, the logical structure of scientific expla-
nations and predictions is very similar.

Answer 115

a) The DN account is problematic, because some cases satisfy the DN

account’s conditions, but intuitively do not constitute genuine explana-
tions.

b) According to the DN account, understanding of a phenomenon is
achieved by having reasons for why the phenomenon was expected on a
lawful basis.
c) According to the DN account, an explanation consists in the deduction
of the explanandum from laws of nature and initial conditions.

d) According to the DN account, the logical structure of scientific expla-
nations and predictions is very similar.

Question 116

Which claims are true about the relation between correlation and causation?
Select all correct claims.
a) Correlation measures the covariance between variables. Causation
measures the influence of one variable on another.
b) That there is a common cause of two variables X and Y explains why
there is a causal relation between X and Y (either X causes Y or Y
causes X), although there is no correlation between X and Y.
c) By analysing correlation data, we typically are able to determine which
causal model is the unique explanation of the data.
d) Variables can be correlated with each other even though no direct causal
relation exists between them.

Answer 116

a) Correlation measures the covariance between variables. Causation
measures the influence of one variable on another.

d) Variables can be correlated with each other even though no direct causal
relation exists between them.

Question 117

What is true about the precautionary principle? Select all correct answers.
The precautionary principle . . .
a) . . . is of no concern in ideal democracies.
b) . . . states that the proponent of an activity, rather than the public,
should bear the burden of proof of the activity’s harmlessness.
c) . . . states that when experiments exceeds the research budget, they
should not be conducted.
d) . . . states that when an activity raises threats of harm to human health
or the environment, precautionary measures should be taken even if
some cause and effect relationships are not fully established scientifically.

Answer 117

b) . . . states that the proponent of an activity, rather than the public,
should bear the burden of proof of the activity’s harmlessness.

d) . . . states that when an activity raises threats of harm to human health
or the environment, precautionary measures should be taken even if
some cause and effect relationships are not fully established scientifically.

Question 118

What is true about informed consent? Select all correct alternatives.
Informed consent . . .
a) . . . is not something that everyone can give.
b) . . . only has support among deontologists who think that individual
autonomy is morally important.
c) . . . designates the legitimate authorization of research participation.
d) . . . should never be sought if it risks spoiling the study.

Answer 118

a) . . . is not something that everyone can give.

c) . . . designates the legitimate authorization of research participation.

Question 119

What is true about risk assessment? Select all correct alternatives. Risk
assessment is the step in risk analysis where . . .
a) . . . policies are put in place.
b) . . . experiments or observational studies are performed.
c) . . . evidential information is communicated to the public.
d) . . . statistical evidence is considered.

Answer 119

b) . . . experiments or observational studies are performed.

d) . . . statistical evidence is considered.

Question 120

A decision has to be made between four alternative courses of action.
On alternative A1, there are three possible outcomes: 20 people dying
(probability 0.2), 500 people dying (p = 0.002), or 5 people dying (p =
0.798).

On alternative A2, there are only two possible outcomes (equal probabili-
ties): 20 people dying, or no one dying.

On A3, there are three possible outcomes (equal probabilities): 9 people
dying, 4 people dying, or 12 people dying.
On A4, finally, there is a one percent probability of 800 people dying
(otherwise, no one dies).

Select all correct statement(s), given the expected value criterion for deci-
sions involving risks:

a) A2 is the best alternative.
b) A1 is the worst alternative.
c) A4 is the best alternative.
d) A1 is the third best alternative.

Answer 120

c) A4 is the best alternative.

d) A1 is the third best alternative.

Question 121

What is the relationship between scientific methods and methodology?
Select all true claims.
a) Methodology is another word for a collection of methods.
b) Methods tell you how to do things, methodology asks why you do things
this way rather than that way.
c) For different methods, the same methodology might apply.
d) Methodology is the process of constructing specific methods.

Answer 121

b) Methods tell you how to do things, methodology asks why you do things
this way rather than that way.
c) For different methods, the same methodology might apply.

Question 122

What is correct about the peer review system? Select all true claims.
a) Editors across scientific journals cooperate so that bad articles sent to
their respective journals will not be accepted.
b) It is a system that let scientists from the same field of research as the
author of an article, so called “peer reviewers”, critically evaluate the
scientific work of that article.
c) The editor of a scientific journal sends off incoming articles to experts
in the area and bases the decision whether to publish or not on their
judgment.
d) It is a standardized system for making new findings known to one’s
scientific peers.

Answer 122

b) It is a system that let scientists from the same field of research as the
author of an article, so called “peer reviewers”, critically evaluate the
scientific work of that article.
c) The editor of a scientific journal sends off incoming articles to experts
in the area and bases the decision whether to publish or not on their
judgment.

Question 123

What is correct about the hypothetico-deductive method for hypothesis
testing? Select all true claims.
a) The hypothetico-deductive method consists in first testing whether the
empirical claim is true and then formulating an hypothesis based on
that test.
b) The method determines how hypotheses can be deduced from other,
more fundamental theories.
c) Observable consequences are deduced from one’s hypotheses and tested
empirically.

d) If your hypothesis contains non-directly observable features, their oper-
ationalization becomes a necessary part of the hypothetico-deductive
method.

Answer 123

c) Observable consequences are deduced from one’s hypotheses and tested
empirically.

d) If your hypothesis contains non-directly observable features, their oper-
ationalization becomes a necessary part of the hypothetico-deductive
method.

Question 124

What is true of Karl Popper’s falsificationism? Select all correct answers.
The falsificationist . . .
a) . . . rejects the hypothetico-deductive model
b) . . . never accepts any hypothesis as true – only maintains non-falsified
hypotheses as so far not rejected
c) . . . seeks to falsify hypotheses with observable evidence
d) . . . conjectures falsifiable hypotheses

Answer 124

b) . . . never accepts any hypothesis as true – only maintains non-falsified
hypotheses as so far not rejected
c) . . . seeks to falsify hypotheses with observable evidence
d) . . . conjectures falsifiable hypotheses

Question 125

What is true of the 7 base units of the International System of Units (SI)?
a) The SI base units either constitute or contain the fundamental units of
current science.
b) It consists of the units: ampere, kelvin, mole, candela, meter, kilogram
and second.
c) An unlimited number of derived units can be formed from the SI base
units through mathematical operations.
d) Some of the units may be more fundamental than the others.

Answer 125

a) The SI base units either constitute or contain the fundamental units of
current science.
b) It consists of the units: ampere, kelvin, mole, candela, meter, kilogram
and second.
c) An unlimited number of derived units can be formed from the SI base
units through mathematical operations.
d) Some of the units may be more fundamental than the others.

Question 126

Which of the following is true of interval scales? Select all true claims.
a) One can meaningfully speak of how many times greater or lesser the
difference between two points on the scale is than the difference between
another pair of points.
b) Interval scales are identical up to positive linear transformations
c) On (linear) interval scales, arithmetic means are meaningful as averages.
d) If a quantity is measured on an interval scale, it cannot also be measured
on a ratio scale.

Answer 126

a) One can meaningfully speak of how many times greater or lesser the
difference between two points on the scale is than the difference between
another pair of points.
b) Interval scales are identical up to positive linear transformations
c) On (linear) interval scales, arithmetic means are meaningful as averages.

Question 127

From the list below, identify all correct techniques for executing experi-
mental control.

a) Elimination.
b) Intervention on the target variable.
c) Construction of experimental artefacts.
d) Holding background variable values constant.

Answer 127

a) Elimination.

d) Holding background variable values constant.

Question 128

Which advantages do experiments have over other empirical methods for
testing hypotheses?
a) Experiments can be an aid in determining which policy (out of a menu
of possible policies) will be most efficient.
b) Causal hypothesis are more easily tested with experiments.
c) Only experiments provide scientists with crucial observations with
which theories can be put to decisive tests.
d) Experiments, unlike other empirical methods, also offer confirming
evidence for a hypothesis.

Answer 128

a) Experiments can be an aid in determining which policy (out of a menu
of possible policies) will be most efficient.
b) Causal hypothesis are more easily tested with experiments.

Question 129

What is the relation between models and experiments? Select all correct
claims.
a) Models are always representations of targets different from themselves,
while experiments are sometimes performed on the target systems
themselves.
b) Performing experimental control is a difficult task. Setting variable and
parameter values in mathematical models is trivial.
c) Internal validity is generally less of a problem for models than for
experiments.
d) The problems posed by flawed proofs and programming bugs in models
is generally a greater threat to internal validity than the problem of
experimental control poses for experiments.

Answer 129

a) Models are always representations of targets different from themselves,
while experiments are sometimes performed on the target systems
themselves.
b) Performing experimental control is a difficult task. Setting variable and
parameter values in mathematical models is trivial.
c) Internal validity is generally less of a problem for models than for
experiments.

Question 130

What distinguishes models from theories? Select all correct claims.
a) Theories are the source of episteme, models are the source of techne.
b) Theories allow making true claims, models do not.
c) By proposing a theory, one claims that the theory’s object is indeed
governed by the principles expressed in the theory. When using a model,
one is typically aware of alternative representations of the same object
useful for other purposes.
d) The main reason to reject a theory is that it is false. The main reason
to reject a model is that it is not useful for a given purpose.

Answer 130

c) By proposing a theory, one claims that the theory’s object is indeed
governed by the principles expressed in the theory. When using a model,
one is typically aware of alternative representations of the same object
useful for other purposes.
d) The main reason to reject a theory is that it is false. The main reason
to reject a model is that it is not useful for a given purpose.

Question 131

Which of the following claims about statistics are true? Select all correct
options.
a) Statistics provides a toolbox of descriptive and inferential methods; and
statistical reasoning justifies the choice from this toolbox.
b) One can only “lie with statistics” by using invalid statistical methods,
or by applying valid statistical methods to junk data.
c) Statistics always lies.
d) “Lying with statistics” often consists in the intentional or accidental
misapplication of valid statistical methods to good-quality data.

Answer 131

a) Statistics provides a toolbox of descriptive and inferential methods; and
statistical reasoning justifies the choice from this toolbox.
d) “Lying with statistics” often consists in the intentional or accidental
misapplication of valid statistical methods to good-quality data.

Question 132

Why should hypotheses be tested statistically? Select all correct options.
a) Some hypotheses only make claims about distributions of outcomes.

b) Neither confirmation nor falsification can be based on deductive rela-
tionships of hypotheses and observations.

c) Statistics provides tools that turn hypothesis testing into a non-fallible
procedure.
d) Observations might contain random measurement errors. A single
(seemingly) falsifying observation might thus not be a good reason to
reject a hypothesis.

Answer 132

a) Some hypotheses only make claims about distributiond) Observations might contain random measurement errors. A single
(seemingly) falsifying observation might thus not be a good reason to
reject a hypothesis.s of outcomes.
d) Observations might contain random measurement errors. A single
(seemingly) falsifying observation might thus not be a good reason to
reject a hypothesis.

Question 133

Which of the following are type explanations? Select all correct alternatives.

a) Vases break when they are dropped because they are fragile.
b) These five vases broke because they were dropped.
c) Most house fires are due to unattended candles.
d) The house burned down because a candle was left to burn unattended.

Answer 133

a) Vases break when they are dropped because they are fragile.
c) Most house fires are due to unattended candles.

Question 134

Which claims are true about the relation between correlation and causation?
Select all correct claims.
a) Variables can be correlated with each other even though no direct causal
relation exists between them.
b) Many different causal models between two variables are compatible
with the observation that the two variables are correlated.
c) Correlation measures the association between variables. Causation
measures the productive influence of one variable on another.
d) That there is a common cause of two variables X and Y explains why
there is a causal relation between X and Y (either X causes Y or Y
causes X), although there is no correlation between X and Y.

Answer 134

a) Variables can be correlated with each other even though no direct causal
relation exists between them.
b) Many different causal models between two variables are compatible
with the observation that the two variables are correlated.
c) Correlation measures the association between variables. Causation
measures the productive influence of one variable on another.

Question 135

What is true about the precautionary principle? Select all correct answers.
The precautionary principle . . .
a) . . . states that when experiments exceed the research budget, they should
not be conducted.
b) . . . states that when an activity raises threats of harm to human health
or the environment, precautionary measures should be taken even if
some cause and effect relationships are not fully established scientifically.
c) . . . is of no concern in ideal democracies.
d) . . . states that the proponent of an activity, rather than the public,
should bear the burden of proof of the activity’s harmlessness.

Answer 135

b) . . . states that when an activity raises threats of harm to human health
or the environment, precautionary measures should be taken even if
some cause and effect relationships are not fully established scientifically.
d) . . . states that the proponent of an activity, rather than the public,
should bear the burden of proof of the activity’s harmlessness.

Question 136

What distinguishes valid deductive inferences from inductive inferences?
Select all true claims.
a) Projection is an example of inductive inference, modus ponens an
example of deductive inferences.
b) Valid deduction is truth-preserving, justified induction is fallible.
c) Inductuion extend conclusions beyond knowledge we already have;
deduction order and rearrange our knowledge without adding to its
content.

Answer 136

a) Projection is an example of inductive inference, modus ponens an
example of deductive inferences.
b) Valid deduction is truth-preserving, justified induction is fallible.
c) Inductuion extend conclusions beyond knowledge we already have;
deduction order and rearrange our knowledge without adding to its
content.

Question 137

What is true about falsifiable statements? Select all true claims. Falsifiable

statements. . .
a) . . . are not true.
b) . . . are always claims about particular instances.
c) . . . may be false.
d) . . . are necessarily false.

Answer 137

c) . . . may be false.

Question 138

What is true about episteme and techne? Select all correct alternatives.

a) Techne has deep and complex methodological problems of its own.
b) Techne provides the ability of achieving some practical goals.
c) Techne consists in knowing why, episteme consists in knowing how.
d) Episteme covers topics of high complexity, techne does not.

Answer 138

a) Techne has deep and complex methodological problems of its own.
b) Techne provides the ability of achieving some practical goals.

Question 139

What is realism in the theory of science? Select all true claims. Realism
is. . .
a) . . . the view that scientific concepts are not descriptions of the actual
world, but merely convenient fictions with which scientists can construct
coherent theories.
b) . . . the view that there is an existing reality independent of us and our
senses.
c) . . . the view that scientific progress is impossible.
d) . . . the view that scientific theories describe, or aim at describing, what
the world is really like.

Answer 139

b) . . . the view that there is an existing reality independent of us and our
senses.
d) . . . the view that scientific theories describe, or aim at describing, what
the world is really like.

Question 140

A decision has to be made between four alternative courses of action.
On alternative A1, there are three possible outcomes: 20 people dying

5

(probability 0.2), 500 people dying (p = 0.002), or 5 people dying (p =
0.798).

On alternative A2, there are only two possible outcomes (equal probabili-
ties): 20 people dying, or no one dying.

On A3, there are three possible outcomes (equal probabilities): 9 people
dying, 4 people dying, or 12 people dying.
On A4, finally, there is a one percent probability of 800 people dying
(otherwise, no one dies).

Select all correct statement(s), given the expected value criterion for deci-
sions involving risks:

a) A4 is the best alternative.
b) A3 is the second best alternative.
c) A2 is the best alternative.
d) A1 is the third best alternative.

Answer 140

a) A4 is the best alternative.
b) A3 is the second best alternative.
d) A1 is the third best alternative.

Question 141

What is true about episteme and techne? Select all correct alternatives.

a) Techne consists in knowing why, episteme consists in knowing how.
b) Techne provides the ability of achieving some practical goals.

c) Episteme means theoretical knowledge, techne means practical knowl-
edge.

d) Techne has deep and complex methodological problems of its own.

Answer 141

b) Techne provides the ability of achieving some practical goals.

c) Episteme means theoretical knowledge, techne means practical knowl-
edge.

d) Techne has deep and complex methodological problems of its own.

Question 142

Which of the following claims about words and definitions is/are true?
Select all correct alternatives.
a) In a lexical definition of a value-laden term, the term’s value-ladenness
should be accurately reflected.
b) If a definiens applies to fewer objects than its associated definiendum,
then the definition is too broad.
c) If a definition is too broad, then it cannot be too narrow.
d) If a definition contains vague words, then it is necessarily too narrow.

Answer 142

a) In a lexical definition of a value-laden term, the term’s value-ladenness
should be accurately reflected.

Question 143

What is true about falsifiable statements? Select all true claims. Falsifiable
statements . . .
a) . . . are necessarily false.
b) . . . are always claims about particular instances.
c) . . . is testable but may not be directly observable.
d) . . . are not true.

Answer 143

c) . . . is testable but may not be directly observable.

Question 144

Which of the following is observable only indirectly? Select all correct
alternatives.
a) The charge in a battery.
b) The well-being of a child.
c) The pH value of a liquid.
d) The precise temperature of a liquid.

Answer 144

a) The charge in a battery.
b) The well-being of a child.
c) The pH value of a liquid.
d) The precise temperature of a liquid.

Question 145

Which of the following expresses a value on a ratio scale?

a) In garments-sizes, M is smaller than L.
b) Water freezes at a temperature of 0 degrees Celsius.
c) Usain Bolt set a world record, running 100 m in 9.58 seconds.
d) A ship travels at 20 nautical miles per hour.

Answer 145

c) Usain Bolt set a world record, running 100 m in 9.58 seconds.
d) A ship travels at 20 nautical miles per hour.

Question 146

What are necessary steps in a measurement procedure? Select all correct
alternatives.
a) Specification of the measure in terms of a physical constant.
b) Establishing the naturalness of the measure.
c) Specification of a measure and definition of a unit.
d) Representation by a measurement scale.

Answer 146

c) Specification of a measure and definition of a unit.

d) Representation by a measurement scale.

Question 147

Which of the following claims about experiments and observational studies
are correct? Select all true claims.
a) In observational studies one manipulates only the variables that are
thought to influence the outcome.
b) Experiments include control and manipulation.
c) Inferences from observational studies might be as internally valid as
from experiments.
d) In an observational study one has limited control over the relevant
variables, while in an experiment one always has absolute control.

Answer 147

b) Experiments include control and manipulation.
c) Inferences from observational studies might be as internally valid as
from experiments.

Question 148

What is correct about the repeatability of experiments? Select all correct
alternatives.

a) It is sufficient for an experiment to repeatable that one of the partici-
pating experimenters knows how to repeat the experiment at a later

stage.
b) An experiment is repeatable if other competent persons that follow the
given description of the experiment can repeat it.
c) Repeatability does not imply replicatability.
d) If an experiment is repeatable, then it is also reproducible.

Answer 148

b) An experiment is repeatable if other competent persons that follow the
given description of the experiment can repeat it.
c) Repeatability does not imply replicatability.

Question 149

Identify the relevant epistemic virtues of scientific models from the following
list.
a) Generality
b) Theory-independence
c) Simplicity
d) Non-computability

Answer 149

a) Generality

c) Simplicity

Question 150

What is the relation between models and experiments? Select all correct
claims
a) External validity is more of a problem for experiments than for models.
b) Models are always representations of targets different from themselves,
while experiments are sometimes performed on the target systems
themselves.
c) Experiments and models are similar in that they always are mere
representations of targets.
d) Internal validity is generally less of a problem for models than for
experiments.

Answer 150

b) Models are always representations of targets different from themselves,
while experiments are sometimes performed on the target systems
themselves.
d) Internal validity is generally less of a problem for models than for
experiments.

Question 151

Which of the following claims about statistics are true? Select all correct
options.
a) It is always clear from the descriptions of the statistical concepts and
tools themselves when one should apply them.
b) One can only “lie with statistics” by using invalid statistical methods,
or by applying valid statistical methods to junk data.
c) Statistics offers different algorithms that might yield different results
when applied to the same kind of data.
d) Statistics always lies.

Answer 151

c) Statistics offers different algorithms that might yield different results
when applied to the same kind of data.

Question 152

Which claims are true about Bayesian statistics? Select all correct alterna-
tives.

a) Bayesian statistics offers an unambiguous algorithm for assigning prior
probabilities to hypotheses.
b) In Bayesian statistics, no probabilities are assigned to hypotheses.
c) The “problem of old evidence” remains a substantial problem for
Bayesian statistics.
d) The main goal in Bayesian hypothesis evaluation is to decide whether
to accept a single hypothesis as either true or false.

Answer 152

c) The “problem of old evidence” remains a substantial problem for
Bayesian statistics.

Question 153

Which claims are true about the relation between correlation and causation?
Select all correct claims.
a) Many different causal models between two variables are compatible
with the observation that the two variables are correlated.
b) Mill’s method of difference has been largely ignored by the modern
practice of randomised controlled trials.
c) That there is a common cause of two variables X and Y explains why
there is a causal relation between X and Y (either X causes Y or Y
causes X), although there is no correlation between X and Y.
d) By analysing correlation data, we typically are able to determine which
causal model is the unique explanation of the data.

Answer 153

a) Many different causal models between two variables are compatible
with the observation that the two variables are correlated.

Question 154

Which of the following are type explanations? Select all correct alterna-
tives.

a) These vases broke because they were dropped.
b) The cars crashed because the road went from dual to single lane while
one of the cars was trying to overtake.

c) Birds are able to follow their migration routes because they have re-
ceptors in their eyes that are sensitive to the magnetic field of the earth.
d) Roads that repeatedly go from double to single file and back again have
higher accident rates because drivers are bad at judging overtaking
maneuvers.

Answer 154

c) Birds are able to follow their migration routes because they have re-
ceptors in their eyes that are sensitive to the magnetic field of the

earth.
d) Roads that repeatedly go from double to single file and back again have
higher accident rates because drivers are bad at judging overtaking
maneuvers.

Question 155

What are the main claims of anti-naturalist views of the social sciences?
Select all correct alternatives.
a) The social sciences must employ their own methods, different from the
natural sciences - but both the natural and the social sciences can use
the same methodology.

b) The social sciences, in contrast to the natural sciences, focus on indi-
vidual cases and cannot generalise from them.

c) Although the social sciences use qualitative data, in contrast to the
natural sciences, there are methods by which this data can be quantified
and thus be analyzed with natural science methods.
d) The social sciences, in contrast to the natural sciences, are in the
business of interpreting human behaviour. Interpretation does not
produce causal explanations, but some other form of understanding.

Answer 155

b) The social sciences, in contrast to the natural sciences, focus on indi-
vidual cases and cannot generalise from them.

d) The social sciences, in contrast to the natural sciences, are in the
business of interpreting human behaviour. Interpretation does not
produce causal explanations, but some other form of understanding.

Question 156

Which claims are true either of methodological individualism or holism?
Select all true claims.
a) Methodological individualism claims that all good social explanations
provide individualist accounts of the explanandum.
b) Methodological holism claims that sometimes, individualist accounts
do not provide illuminating explanations of social phenomena because
they can be instantiated in many different ways on the individual level.
c) Methodological holism is compatible with the claim that all social
phenomena are produced by individual interactions.
d) Methodological individualism claims that there are no social entities in
the world, only individuals (and families).

Answer 156

a) Methodological individualism claims that all good social explanations
provide individualist accounts of the explanandum.
b) Methodological holism claims that sometimes, individualist accounts
do not provide illuminating explanations of social phenomena because
they can be instantiated in many different ways on the individual level.
c) Methodological holism is compatible with the claim that all social
phenomena are produced by individual interactions.

Question 157

Scientific openness is generally valued in science, however there are legiti-
mate exceptions. Select all correct alternatives. Not sharing scientific data

may be justified when . . .
a) . . . sharing the data jeopardizes the chances of publishing the results in
an article.
b) . . . protecting one’s institution from legitimate moral blame.
c) . . . protecting people’s privacy.
d) . . . the correctness of the data has not been checked.

Answer 157

a) . . . sharing the data jeopardizes the chances of publishing the results in
an article.
c) . . . protecting people’s privacy.
d) . . . the correctness of the data has not been checked.

Question 158

What is true about the precautionary principle? Select all correct answers.
The precautionary principle . . .
a) . . . states that the proponent of an activity, rather than the public,
should bear the burden of proof of the activity’s harmlessness.
b) . . . implies that the scientist must be able to show that the new detergent
is not harmful, or that the new species does not harm the ecosystem,
etc.
c) . . . imposes a moral constraint on researchers.
d) . . . is of no concern in ideal democracies.

Answer 158

a) . . . states that the proponent of an activity, rather than the public,
should bear the burden of proof of the activity’s harmlessness.
b) . . . implies that the scientist must be able to show that the new detergent
is not harmful, or that the new species does not harm the ecosystem,
etc.
c) . . . imposes a moral constraint on researchers.

Question 159

What is true about risk assessment? Select all correct alternatives. Risk
assessment is the step in risk analysis where . . .
a) . . . evidential information is communicated to the public.
b) . . . policies are put in place.
c) . . . regulations are determined.
d) . . . experiments or observational studies are performed.

Answer 159

d) . . . experiments or observational studies are performed.

Question 160

A decision has to be made between four alternative courses of action.
On alternative A1, there are three possible outcomes: 20 people dying
(probability 0.2), 500 people dying (p = 0.002), or 5 people dying (p =
0.798).

On alternative A2, there are only two possible outcomes (identical proba-
bilities): 20 people dying, or no one dying.

On A3, there are three possible outcomes (identical probabilities): 9 people
dying, 4 people dying, or 12 people dying.
On A4, finally, there is a one percent probability of 800 people dying
(otherwise, no one dies).

Select all correct statement(s), given the expected value criterion for deci-
sions involving risks:

a) A2 is the fourth best alternative.
b) A3 is the second best alternative.
c) A3 is the best alternative.
d) A1 is the worst alternative.

Answer 160

a) A2 is the fourth best alternative.

b) A3 is the second best alternative.