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Sociology > Family > Flashcards

Family Flashcards

1
Q

Family

A

Group of people who live together who are related by kinship types such as relations of blood, marriage, civil partnership, adoption and cohabitation

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2
Q

Kinship

A

Refers to relations of blood, marriage / civil partnership or adoption

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3
Q

Household

A

One person / group of people all living in one address

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4
Q

Nuclear family

A

Two generations: parents and children living in the same household

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5
Q

Beanpole family

A

A multi-generation extended family which is long and thin with few aunts, uncles, cousins, reflecting fewer children being born in each generation, but people living together longer

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6
Q

Reconstituted family

A

One or both partners were previously married, with children of previous relationships

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7
Q

Matrifocal family

A

A family where the mother heads the family and father plays less important role in the home and bringing up children

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8
Q

Single parent family

A

Lone parent with dependent children mostly common after divorce or separation

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9
Q

Same sex family

A

Same sex couple living together with children

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10
Q

Extended family

A

All kin beyond the nuclear family

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11
Q

Chosen family

A

Non-biological kinship bonds, wether legally recognised or not, deliberately chosen for the purpose of mutual support and love

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12
Q

George Murdock 4 functions of the family

A
  1. Sexual - expressing sexuality in a socially approved context
  2. Reproduction - family providing some stability for the reproduction and rearing of children
  3. Socialisation - unit of primary socialisation
  4. Economic - family provides food and shelter for family members
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13
Q

Criticisms of George Murdock

A
  • out of date: over 60 years ago
  • structural differentiation: new institutions have emerged replacing old ones
  • false universality: not all societies work the same way, some don’t have families at all
  • ignores diversity: makes assumption nuclear family is still most prevalent
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14
Q

Talcott parsons theory on family

A

As society changes the type of family which fits that society and the functions of it change, the nuclear family fits the more complex industrial society better but performs a reduced number of functions

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15
Q

Talcott parsons 2 functions nuclear family performs

A
  • primary socialisation
  • stabilisation of adult personalities
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16
Q

What is primary socialisation

A

Parsons argues that society would cease to exist if the new generation were not socialised into accepting society’s basic norms and values. He argues socialisation in the family is so powerful that cultures become part of a persons personality and people are molded into terms of the central values of the culture and act without thinking about it

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17
Q

What is stabilisation of adult personalities

A

Family help stabilise personalities as a result of early gender role socialisation and the sexual division of labour

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18
Q

Warm bath theory

A

Work life is stressful, the family is a place where the working man can return home and be de-stressed by his wife and reduces society’s conflict

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19
Q

Criticisms of parsons view

A
  1. Downplays conflict - ‘dark side’ of family with domestic abuse and child abuse
  2. Being out of date
  3. Functionalism is too deterministic - robotic adoption of societies values via our parents isn’t always true
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20
Q

What is the Marxist view on family

A
  • nuclear family is a tool of captialism
  • capitalist societies are unequal and privatised nuclear family is necessary to maintain that inequality
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21
Q

Engels - inheritance of wealth views

A
  • classless societies
  • private ownership and profits
  • pass on wealth, need for monogamy
  • reproduction of inequality
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22
Q

Althusser: socialisation into social hierarchy views

A
  • working class must submit to ruling class
  • family is an ideological state apparatus
  • passed on the ideology of the ruling class
  • ruling class tries to maintain false class consciousness
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23
Q

Zaretsky: the cushioning effect view

A
  • family acts as a comfort from the stresses of an industrial society
  • similar to warm bath theory
  • family allows men to feel in control to make up for oppression in society
  • prevents revolution
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24
Q

Zaretsky: the family as a unit of consumption views

A
  • wages low enough for profits, but high enough for spending
  • advertising and media contribute
  • family’s must keep up with other families
  • children targeted in advertising
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25
Q

How does the nuclear family reproduce

A

Helps creates the next generation of workers

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26
Q

What are the ideological functions of the family

A
  • prevents revolution
  • socialisation into the social hierarchy
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27
Q

Positive evaluations of marxist view of family

A
  • offers an explanation as to why the ‘dark side’ of family exists
  • discusses the idea that nuclear family is a social construct and not always good for society
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28
Q

Negative evaluations of marxist view of family

A
  • too deterministic
  • ignores family diverse
  • overly negative
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29
Q

What do feminists believe the nuclear family has traditionally done

A
  • socialisation
  • legitimise inequality
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30
Q

What do the liberal feminists believe

A
  • women’s position in the family can have adverse effects on their power
  • gender inequality is caused by the public sphere, rather than just at home
  • inequality = inequal pay (past)
  • best way to improve the position of women is through reform measures
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31
Q

Jenny somerville (2000): March of progress view concept

A
  • many feminists have failed to acknowledge progress for women
  • increase in dual earning households has help equalise relationships
  • changes to government policies
  • changes to parenting, children aren’t automatically socialised to gender norms anymore
  • changes in social attitudes (reproductive and divorce)
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32
Q

Criticisms of the liberal feminist view from a intersectional feminist

A

Liberal feminism is a ethnocentric view, reflects the experiences of mainly white middle class women

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33
Q

Criticisms of the liberal feminist view from a radical feminist

A

Fails to deal with the patriarchal structures and culture in contemporary family life

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34
Q

Criticisms of the liberal feminist view from Ann Oakley

A

Household work is still primarily a women’s job and the housework is still largely gendered

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35
Q

Criticism of the liberal feminist view

A

Overstates progress

women are still expected to triple shift

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36
Q

What do marxist feminists believe

A
  • women are doubly exploited - both as workers and as women
  • women’s work in the family contributes to the maintenance of capitalism
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37
Q

Beechy (1970s) : reproduction of the labour force

A
  • ruling class supplied with a readily available and passive workforce
  • ensures workers return to work renewed
  • women socialise children into accepting authority
  • unpaid domestic labour
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38
Q

Beechy (1970s): Army of cheap labour

A
  • women ‘normal role’ restricts them from working
  • women ready in the background
  • men unlikely to revolt out of fear women will be given work instead
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39
Q

Ansley (1962): absorb anger

A
  • women absorb the anger that would otherwise be directed at capitalism
  • women are victims of male frustration
  • women are ‘takers of shit’ under capitalism
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40
Q

Soft solutions to tackle capitalism to tackle patriarchy

A
  • payment for invisible work
  • closing the pay gap
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41
Q

Hard solutions to tackle capitalism to tackle patriarchy

A
  • revolution to overthrow capitalist systems
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42
Q

Criticisms of the marxist feminist view

A
  • women are no longer the reserve army of the labour
  • women are oppressed in non-capitalist societies
  • domestic violence laws
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43
Q

What do radical feminists believe

A
  • all relationships between me and women are based on patriarchy
  • nuclear family is where this system of oppression starts, founder of patriarchy
  • women have acquired ‘dual burden’ of paid work and unpaid housework and the family remains patriarchal, men benefit from paid earnings and their domestic labour
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44
Q

Millett (1960-70s): the family is a reflection of patriarchy in society concept

A

Both a mirror of and a connection with the larger society, a patriarchal unit within patriarchy as a whole. Family effects control and conformity where political and other authorities are insufficient

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45
Q

Millett (1960-70s): Ownership concept

A

Traditionally, patriarchy granted the father nearly total ownership over wife/wives and children (physical, murder, sale)

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46
Q

Delphi and Leonard (1992): socialisation concept

A

Contribution of the family in patriarchy in the socialisation of the young into patriarchal attitudes towards the categories of role, temperament, and status - women socialised into aiding men through triple shift

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47
Q

Separatism

A

Women must organise themselves to live independently of men

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48
Q

Political lesbianism

A

Heterosexual relationships are inevitably oppressive

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49
Q

Matrilocal households

A

All female households

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50
Q

Criticisms of the radical feminist view

A
  • ignores progress which has been made
  • solutions are unobtainable
  • assumes women are passive
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51
Q

What do intersectional feminists believe

A
  • false universality of women’s experience in the family
  • every women will have different experience of family
  • focus is on nuclear family but they do acknowledge other family types
  • does ignore some shared experiences (pay gap)
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52
Q

New right view on family

A

Supports traditional values and institutions and its view on the role, importance and functions of traditional family is similar to functionalist view - there is only one correct/normal family type (nuclear) - natural family type.

The decline and growth of family diversity is the cause of many social problems

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53
Q

Murray (1989) concept

A

Welfare state led to a dependency culture from the state that these encourage single parenting which they argue leads to deviancy and decline in morality.

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54
Q

Criticisms of new right beliefs about the family

A
  • exaggeration of the decline of the nuclear family
  • gender roles are socially determined
  • most single parents are not welfare scroungers
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55
Q

Personal life perspective of family

A

Internationalist perspective which criticises structural perspectives (func,Marx,fem) for assuming nuclear family is the dominant family type and taking that as a base unit for analysis.

  • family is not in decline, just very difficult and much more diverse and complex than before
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56
Q

What is the personal life perspectives criticisms of structural perspectives (2)

A
  • tend to assume the traditional nuclear family is the dominant family type and ignores increased diversity
  • they assume families and their members are simply passive puppets manipulated by the structure of society to perform certain functions
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57
Q

Nordqvist and Smart concept

A

Parents often emphasised the importance of social relationships over genetic ones

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58
Q

Carol Smart concept

A

Prioritises bonds between people, importance of memory, cultural heritage, significance of emotions, how family secrets work and change over time.

Draws attention to range of other personal or intimate relationships that are important to people even if they’re not conventionally defined as family

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59
Q

Positive evaluations of personal life perspective

A
  • helps people construct and define ‘family’ rather than imposing traditional sociological definitions
  • rejects the top-down view taken by other perspectives
  • recognises people are active in constructing relationships
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60
Q

Criticisms of personal life perspective

A
  • too broad of a view
  • provide more financial support to children than friends
  • a nationally representative sample of ‘families’ very difficult
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61
Q

What do postmodernist believe

A

Recent social changes such as increasing social fragmentation, greater diversity and technological changes have made family more a matter of personal choice and as a result families have become more unstable and more diverse

There is no longer one typical type of family e.g. nuclear family, there is more diversity and it’s no longer possible to make general theories about the role of the family in society like they’ve done in the past

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62
Q

Anthony Giddens (needs based family) concept

A

People have more choice in their relationships and family arrangements, no family stays in the same structure or divisions they change as circumstances change - couples stay together because of love, happiness or sexual attraction rather than a sense of duty or for the sake of the children

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63
Q

Ulrich beck (negotiated family) concept

A

Roles and power structure within the family is negotiated by the members to satisfy all members and argues we live in a ‘risk society’ where tradition has less influence and people have more choice and as a result we developed a ‘risk consciousness’ as we spend more time calculating the risks and rewards of different courses of action available

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64
Q

Stacy: ‘family is an ambiguous fluid’ concept

A

Women have more freedom then ever before to shape their family arrangement to meet their needs and free themselves from patriarchy. Many women reject traditional housewife roles and vary in paths

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65
Q

Divorce extended family

A

Members are connected by divorce rather than marriage

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66
Q

Positive evaluations of the post modernist perspective

A
  • dual earner is norm in society today
  • not everyone wants to marry, people of older age may choose not too
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67
Q

Negative evaluations of the post modernist perspective

A
  • over emphasis the amount of choice people have when it comes to relationships
  • gender roles disadvantage women remains the norm
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68
Q

3 types of cohabitation

A
  • temporary and informal
  • substitute to marriage
  • trial marriage
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69
Q

What is temporary and informal cohabitation

A
  • spend time together
  • sharing housing
  • casual
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70
Q

What is substitute to marriage cohabitation

A
  • long term
  • stable and committed
  • no legal commitments
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71
Q

What is trial cohabitation

A
  • prep for marriage
  • 80% of couples cohabit before marrying
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72
Q

Why might people choose to cohabit

A

Economic reasons: marriage is expensive and people may prioritise housing over wedding

Changing social attitudes: young people no longer need to commit to marriage straight away, rising divorce rates may put people off, marriage is less practical

Secularisation: influence of religion on society has decreased

Changing role of women: growing independence and own careers and are less willing to take on demands of mother roles

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73
Q

LATs

A

Living apart together

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74
Q

Pure relationship

A

Intimacy of a couple, individual autonomy

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75
Q

Who came up with LATs

A

Levin (2004)

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76
Q

Levin: LATs

A

Long term, committed relationship but couple do not share a home and is an approved alternative to marriage

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77
Q

Why is there a rise in LATs

A
  • responsibility and care: don’t want relationship to get in the way of others in their life
  • practical reasons: different workplaces/study places
  • risk: people don’t want to risk a mistake
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78
Q

Different types of marriage

A

Monogamy
Open
Polygamous
Polygyny
Polyandry
Arranged marriage
Forced marriage

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79
Q

Polygamous

A

Having one or more partner at once

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80
Q

Monogamy

A

Having one partner at one time

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81
Q

Polygyny

A

Man has more than one wife

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82
Q

Polyandry

A

Women has more than one husband

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83
Q

Reasons for trends in marriage

A

Reduced function of the family: less pressure on family other structures have come about

Reducing risk: less controlled by societies views and more risk in people’s lives

Changing role of women: liberal fems - women get married later, work shift

Growing securalisation: marriage is less religious now

Rising divorce rates: wary of marriage now

Changing social attitudes: more choice in life now, more accepted other ideas (Cohab)

Economic reasons: marriage is expensive, decline is caused wait till later when they can afford it

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84
Q

Positive impacts of marriage and cohabitation

A
  • fems: more negotiations and equality in roles
  • cohabitation is more of a norm now
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85
Q

Negative impacts of marriage and cohabitation

A
  • cohabitation is less stable than marriage + easier to leave
  • marriage less shows lack of commitment
  • children of cohabitation are disadvantaged
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86
Q

Types of marital breakdown

A
  • divorce: legal declaration of dissolving a marriage
  • separation
  • empty shell: children left
  • annulment: marriage was never legal
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87
Q

2 types of annulment

A

Voided - (under 16, already married, close family member)

Defective - one partner has an std, not consummated

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88
Q

1949 legal aid and advice act

A

Provided financial support to those who couldn’t afford divorce

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89
Q

1969 divorce reform act

A

allowed for irreconcilable difference as a reason for divorce and allowed women to file divorce without adultery proven

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90
Q

What did the 1969 divorce act do

A

1950 - 20,000 divorces per year
1980s - 160,000 per year

BOOSTED IT

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91
Q

Divorce trends

A
  • 42% of marriages end in divorce
  • 16% end by 60th anniversary
  • average marriage : 32 years
  • 34% end by 20th wedding anniversary
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92
Q

Reasons for divorce increase

A
  • changes to law:1969 reform act
  • securisation: marriage is no longer sacred
  • changing attitudes: socially acceptable
  • rising expectations of marriage: marriage isn’t what people thought, leave
  • decline in influence of extended family: less practical
  • changing role of women: women are more likely to file for divorce, not what they thought/expected
  • rising life expectancy: people live longer, gives marriage more time to go wrong
  • greater availability of contraception: no longer accidentally having children, can be more careful and safer to do so
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93
Q

Impact of divorce on children

A

negative effext

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94
Q

New right view on divorce

A

Eroding the fabric of society

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95
Q

Feminist view on divorce

A
  • helped women gain freedom
  • rising divorce doesn’t mean anti marriage
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96
Q

Family diversity

A

Differences between families in terms of structure, organisation

97
Q

Edmund leach (1967) concept

A

Cereal packet family - nuclear family is ideal form as it’s on many household items

98
Q

What has replaced nuclear family

A
  • reconsituted
  • divorce extended
  • single parent
  • single person household
  • LATs
  • multi generational
  • shared household
  • cohabitation
  • same sex
  • adults stay living with parents
  • cultural diversity
99
Q

Rappoports concept

A
  • organisational: way family organises itself
  • cultural: way different cultures differ in their family life
  • class: way different classes change and differ their way of family life
  • life course: the different family types you experience in life
  • cohort: those in the same age group experiences are similar
100
Q

What has caused family diversity

A
  • changes in law
  • changing social attitudes
  • changing roles of women
  • globalisation: technology - dispersed extended family (don’t have to live nearby (FaceTime))
  • material factors: women earn more now, no need to settle down
101
Q

Functional fit theory - parsons

A

Nuclear family structure is a better fit since the industrial revolution as it helps to perform the different functions in a complex world (warm bath, primary, stabilisation)

  • nuclear family allow for specialised roles
  • nuclear family are independent unit
102
Q

Charles murray- new right concept

A
  • diversity is causing breakdown in society
  • only conventional nuclear family can provide necessary emotional and financial support
103
Q

Postmodernism - confluent love

A

individuals now want a meaningful relationship of love and respect - not money, force, etc

104
Q

Chester - Neo conventional family concept

A

Increased diversity, move from the dominance of the traditional nuclear family but he doesn’t see it as a negative thing

He argues most people will at some point be a nuclear family they might not always stay one though.

105
Q

Cultural diversity

A
  • differences in family structure and lifestyles between ethnic and religious groups
106
Q

Caribbean families

A
  • Low rates of marriage - unimportant to them
  • high levels of lone parents
  • only 1/4 black children have both black parents
  • less likely to live with a partner
107
Q

South Asian families

A
  • divorce rates are low : disapproval
  • high marriage rates
  • common patriarchal structure
108
Q

Social class diversity

A
  • differences between upper class, middle class and working class

(Working class = extended)
(Middle class = nuclear)

  • poor kids are more likely to get pregnant
  • more educated women have babies later
109
Q

Diversity (sexuality)

A

Differences between same sex and non same sex familes

  • children : alternative options have to be found for the same sex
110
Q

birth rate and fertility rate statistics

A

The birth rate in England and Wales fell from 18/1000 to just 11/1000 between 1950 and 2023.

The Total Fertility Rate declined from 2.9 babies per woman in 1960 to just 1.6 babies per woman in 2022.

This means both the birth rate and the total fertility rate have almost halved in the last 70 years.

111
Q

Birth rate

A

Number of live births per 1000 of the population per year

112
Q

General fertility rate

A

Total number of live births per 1000 women of reproductive age

113
Q

Total fertility rate

A

The total number of children who would be born per woman in the child bearing years

114
Q

Average family size

A

Average number of children in a family

115
Q

Average household size

A

Average number of people residing in a single residence

116
Q

How has contraception and availability of abortion affected childbearing

A

Anthony Giddens - The contraceptive pill gives a ‘plastic sexuality’ to society where sex becomes detached from reproduction. The pill gives woman more control over their reproduction. these technological advances are the reasons why women are having fewer babies and later. There are other technological innovations such as IVF and freezing of eggs so women can have children later

117
Q

How has compulsory eduction affected childbearing

A

Since the introduction of compulsory education, children have gone from being an economic asset to an economic burden. Because of education, parents end up having to support children for much longer - meaning people have less children.

118
Q

How has changing role of women affected childbearing

A

Career now comes first for many women, and childbearing is delayed by an average of ten years compared to in the 1950s.
Anthony Giddens and Ulrich Beck both regard this as the most important factor explaining the decline in the birth rate.

119
Q

Evaluation of the changing role of women affecting childbearing view

A

It is important not to exaggerate the advances women have made, when the children come along, it is still predominantly women who do the majority of childcare and housework and suffer the consequences in terms of their career.

120
Q

How has decline in infant mortality affected childbearing

A

Infant mortality has decreased significantly since 1980. Higher living standards mean better quality housing, nutrition, medical care, reducing the infant mortality rate, meaning people no longer need to have more babies to replace those who have died. In 1980 the infant mortality was 12/1000 babies, by 2021 it was down to just 3.7/1000.

121
Q

How has geographical mobility affected childbearing

A

The modern labour force needs to be mobile. This is an incentive for smaller families because it makes them easier to pack up and move elsewhere.

This links to Parsons’ functional fit theory.

122
Q

How has changing values affected childbearing

A

The decline of traditional norms and values such as those associated with religions mean that contraception is no longer viewed in a stigmatised way.

Declining birth rates also reflect individualisation – the fact that we put our own needs first and it is acceptable to choose not to have children.

123
Q

How has changing status of children effected childbearing?

A
  • Until the late 19th century children were an asset to their parents because they could be sent out to work.
  • Today there are laws protect children from working and dictate that they should spend 18 years in education, and thus children have become an economic liability.
  • It is expected that children be the centre of family life - it is easier to do this with fewer children.
124
Q

How has economic factors effected childbearing?

A
  • The wealthier the country, the lower the birth rate.
  • Higher living standards mean better quality housing, nutrition, medical care, reducing the infant mortality rate.
  • People are so busy working that they no longer have the time to start families.
  • People no longer need children to look after them in their old age (because of taxes and pensions)
125
Q

Impact of changes in fertility rate

A
  • reduction in labour force
  • dependency ratio
  • immigration
  • growth of the beanpole family
  • growth of voluntary childlessness
  • decrease in full time mothers
  • environmental impact
126
Q

2 traditional gender roles: Talcott Parsons (1995)

A

Woman:
More emotional and caring domestic role of the female (expressive)

Man:
The rational male breadwinner and disciplinarian (instrumental role)

127
Q

Separate conjugal roles

A

Couples have individual roles within the family both in terms of domestic labour and leisure activities.

128
Q

Joint conjugal roles

A

Couples share domestic labour and spend their leisure time together.

129
Q

March of progress: Willmott and Young (1973) - The Symmetrical Family

A

They saw family life as gradually improving for all its members, becoming more equal and democratic. They argued that there was a long term trend away from segregated conjugal roles and towards joint conjugal roles.

There was also the emergence of the ‘symmetrical family’: one in which the roles of husbands and wives, although not identical are now much more similar:
1. Women now go out to work full time
2. Men now help with housework and child care
3. Couples now spend their leisure time together rather than separately

130
Q

Symmetrical family

A

One in which the roles of husbands and wives, although not identical are now much more similar

E.g.
1. Women now go out to work full time
2. Men now help with housework and child care
3. Couples now spend their leisure time together rather than separately

131
Q

The Egalitarian Family: Anthony Giddens

A

Family and marriage have become egalitarian as:

  1. Contraception has allowed sex and intimacy rather than reproduction to become the main reason for the relationship’s existence.
  2. Women have gained independence because of greater opportunities in education and work.
132
Q

Egalitarian family

A

People are equal and deserve equal rights and opportunities

133
Q

Negotiated family: Ulrich Beck

A

Two trends have undermined the traditional patriarchal family:

  1. Greater Gender Equality – This has challenged male domination in all spheres of life. Women now expect equality both at work and in marriage.
  2. Greater individualism – where people’s self-interest influence their actions rather than a sense of obligation to others.

These trends have led to the rise of the negotiated family.
Negotiated families do not conform to the traditional family norm, but vary according to the wishes and expectations of their members, who decided what is best for them by discussion.
They enter the relationship on an equal basis.

134
Q

How have economically active mothers changed gender roles?

A
  • That most women are now in paid employment has increased their independence and authority.
  • Gershuny (1994) found that as wives moved into paid employment, or from part-time to full-time work, they did less housework and men did more.
  • Kat et al (2011) found that while men have increased their contribution to domestic work, this is in what has been traditionally seen as masculine-defined tasks.
135
Q

How has a decline in extended family networks changed gender roles?

A
  • There are fewer family members around to help with tasks like childcare, meaning that men are needed to contribute more.
  • There is less pressure from kin on newly married couples to retain traditional roles.
  • There are often no longer the separate male and female networks. This increases their dependence on each other.
136
Q

How has a weakening gender identities changed gender roles?

A
  • Postmodernists would argue that men and women now have more choice in how they see themselves and their roles.
  • They argue that people are less constrained by traditional masculine and feminine gender roles.
  • This may weaken traditional gender divisions in housework and childcare.
137
Q

How has a technology and standards of living changed gender roles?

A
  • Improved living standards such as central heating, TVs, computers and other consumer goods have encouraged couples to become more home-centred.
138
Q

How has commercialisation of domestic labour changed gender roles?

A

New technologies such as washing machines, hoovers and fridge-freezers (think ready meals) have reduced the amount of housework that needs doing.

Silver (1987) and Schor (1992) suggest that this commercialisation has taken away some of the drudgery and time-consuming aspects of housework.

This means housework is now easier and less skilled, enabling women to do less, and men a bit more (only if the woman doesn’t have to organise).

Likely to only benefit the well-off

139
Q

How has the levels of change in domestic division of labour been exaggerated?

A

Domestic work has been distributed more equally since the 1950s, but women still shoulder the majority of housework and childcare responsibilities. Although new technologies and women’s increasing participation in paid work have contributed to balancing the load, there is evidence of a lingering dual burden for women. Factors such as ethnicity, education, and social class also influence these dynamics.

140
Q

What is the evidence of unchanging division of labour - Oakley (dual burden) and Duncombe and Marsden (triple shift)?

A

Even in dual career families women had the responsibility for domestic tasks.

Unemployed men resist pleas from partners to do more housework

Paid work has not been ‘liberating’. Instead women have acquired the ‘dual burden’ of paid work and unpaid housework and the family remains patriarchal. Men benefit from women’s paid earnings and their domestic labour. Some Radical Feminists go further arguing that women suffer from the ‘triple shift’ where they have to do paid work, domestic work and ‘emotion work’.

141
Q

What is the evidence of unchanging division of labour - perceptions of housework

A

Career women were still viewed as “wives and mothers”.

Men participating in domestic tasks are doing so to “help their wives“.

142
Q

What is the evidence of unchanging division of labour - same sex couples

A

Gay and lesbian couples are more equal and symmetrical than heterosexual ones.

But if unequal earning then there was unequal division of domestic labour.

143
Q

Domestic abuse

A

Domestic abuse is any incident or series of incidents of physical, psychological or sexual abuse by a current or previous partner.

144
Q

Some current statistics for domestic violence

A
  • 1 incident of domestic violence is reported to the police every minute
  • On average, 2 women a week are killed by a current or former male partner.
  • For every 3 victims of domestic violence 2 will be women and 1 will be male.
  • According to the Crime Survey of England and Wales (2022) 7.9% of women were victims of domestic abuse in the year ending March 2022. This compared to only 3.5% of men
  • Nearly 1 in 4 women have been assaulted by a partner at some time in their life, and 1 in 8 repeatedly so.
145
Q

Some issues with current domestic violence statistics

A
  • some agencies are reluctant to get involved
  • victims aren’t always willing to report the abuse
  • fear of reprisal
  • some don’t believe they would be blamed
  • some believe they are to blame
  • some abuse is difficult to prove: emotional or psychological abuse
  • DAR: can be difficult to seperate incidents as it can be continuous or so the victim can’t accurately recall.
146
Q

Feminist explanations of domestic violence

A
  • radical feminist say domestic violence is an inevitable feature of a patriarchal society
  • part of a wide system that helps maintain male power over woman
  • Dobash and Dobash: Domestic violence is evidence of patriarchy and caused by challenges to male authority. In recent years this can be linked to a crisis of masculinity where men are unsure of their place in society and strike out.
147
Q

criticisms of feminist explanations of domestic violence

A
  • Elliot: not all men are violent
  • men are also victims of domestic violence: as many as 40% of domestic violence cases are men.
  • some groups of woman are likely than others to be a victim
  • Wilkinson criticises Feminists by arguing that it is not so much Patriarchy, but poverty that causes stress which leads to DV, so this is much less common in more equal, middle class households.
148
Q

New right explanations of domestic violence

A
  • Murray states domestic violence only occurs in dysfunctional families
  • these families include those with teen parents, cohabitation and divorce over a stable marriage
  • there are higher rates of DV in lower classes due to lower moral standard.
149
Q

Criticisms of the new right view on domestic violence

A
  • DV is not limited to working class
  • Too much focus on violence compared to other forms of abuse
150
Q

Postmodernist explanations of domestic violence

A
  • Giddens: DV caused by emotional intensity of family life
  • nature of family life makes domestic violence quite common as family life is characterised by emotional intensity and personal intimacy
  • Increasing isolation of nuclear family increases intensity and escalations to violence - lack people to vent too
151
Q

criticisms of the postmodernist explanations of domestic violence

A
  • not all families are abusive
  • we choose our family structures so can have people to vent to who are not extended family
152
Q

marxists feminist explanations of domestic violence

A

Wilkinson & Pickett -
Domestic violence is the result of stress on family members caused by social inequality.
Having less resources than others can lead to stress and violence out of frustration. Lack of time and money can reduce the social circle and people for support.

Ansley –
Women are takers of shit, men are frustrated by the oppression they feel at work and take this out on their wives.

153
Q

criticisms of marxist feminist view on domestic violence

A
  • doesn’t explain male victims
  • domestic violence is not limited to working class
  • not all men are violent to their partners
154
Q

impact of inequality in the family

A

Fear that a women might become pregnant can limit promotion prospects.

Women are seen as unreliable workers as they are more likely to take time off if a child is unwell.

Women are seen as less committed to their careers after they have children compared to men, due to their roles at home.

155
Q

impact of inequality on family: triple shift

A

Green (1996) – Women tend to see their free/leisure time as time when they are away from both paid work and family commitments. Whereas men consider any time away from paid work as free time.

Bernard (1982) found that men were more satisfied with their marriage than their wives, who expressed feelings of emotional loneliness.

Oakley (1974) found that women felt similar feelings of boredom and depression as those felt by line workers in factories.

156
Q

decision making in the family: Gurshunny and Laurie (2000)

A
  • decision making is linked to earnings
  • 70% of women said that they had equal say in family decisions, but women in higher-earning jobs or positions were more likely to say that they had equal say than those who weren’t.
157
Q

decision making in the family: Pahl and Volger (1993)

A
  • pooling vs allowance money management systems
  • Men give wives a certain amount of money each week/month for family expenses - all other money belongs to them. However, ‘pooling’ of household income is on the increase. Pooling is where both partners have equal access of income and joint responsibility for expenditure. 50% of couples pooled their income compared to only 19% of their parents, showing a movement away from ‘allowance systems’ in household expenditure’.
158
Q

decision making in the family: McIntosh and Barrett (1991)

A
  • men gain more from unpaid domestic labour then they give back financially
  • Men gain more from women’s unpaid domestic labour, and, in allowance situations, do not give adequate recompense (or, if they do, it often comes with strings attached).
159
Q

decision making in the family: Kempson (1996)

A
  • women will go without to make ends meet: money is family money
  • Women in low income families will often go without to make ends meet. They see the money as family money, men do not see it this way.
160
Q

decision making in the family: Edgell (1980)

A
  • very important decisions are made by men (moving houses, changing jobs, etc)
  • important decisions are made jointly (holidays, eductions for children, health, etc)
  • day to day decisions are made by woman (dinner, food, clothing, decor for home, etc)
161
Q

decision making in the family: feminists

A
  • system of decision making in the family is down to patriarchal society and gender roles socialisation that gives power to men
  • Decision making isn’t actually down to income, but cultural expectations in a patriarchal society.
162
Q

what evidence is there for childhood disappearing?

A
  • increased rights for children
  • children committing adult crimes
  • blurring lines between adult and child cultures
  • declining parental authority
  • information hierarchy is breaking down
163
Q

Neil Postman (1994) view on childhood disappearing

A

Postman argues that childhood emerged along with mass literacy. This was because the printed word created a division between those that could read (adults) and those that couldn’t (children). This division emerged because it takes several years to master reading and writing skills, and those years of ‘not being able to read and years spent learning to read and write’ became the childhood years.

Postman argues that in contemporary society, new technologies like television and the internet blur this separation and that children are now much more able to access the ‘adult world’. As a result, childhood as we know it is disappearing.

The growth of ‘Kidults’ means adults becoming more like children. One aspect of this is younger adults spending longer living with their parents

164
Q

criticisms of the theory that childhood is disappearing

A
  • Jenks (2005): while there are increased concerns among parents about the impacts technologies such as the internet are having on children, this hasn’t resulted in the disappearance of childhood as such.
  • Technological changes have led to parents thinking children and childhood need to be more protected that ever – as evidenced in the increase Paranoid Parenting and social policies surrounding safeguarding
165
Q

toxic childhood

A

where rapid technological and cultural changes cause psychological and physical damage to children. It is critical of the idea that more education and products for children are necessarily good for them

166
Q

according to sue palmer the trend to toxic childhood is the result of..

A
  • the decline of outdoor play
  • commercialisation of childhood
  • schoolification of early childhood
  • shorter attention spans
  • screen saturation
  • tests, targets and education
167
Q

how has decline of outdoor play contributed to toxic childhood?

A

less independence, less resilience, less risk taking

168
Q

how has the commercialisation of childhood contributed to toxic childhood?

A

children are exploited by advertisers and they become consumers at a young age and their identities are based on products

169
Q

how has screen saturation contributed to toxic childhood?

A

increases anxiety and reduces face to face interaction

170
Q

how has education (testing and targets) contributed to toxic childhood?

A

children are put under too much pressure to perform and the curriculum is too narrow and restricted

171
Q

how has shorter attention spans contributed to toxic childhood?

A

the decline of listening, language and communication skills

172
Q

how has the schoolification of early childhood contributed to toxic childhood?

A

children have less time to play before starting school

173
Q

criticisms of toxic childhood

A
  • sue palmers view is ethnocentric
  • suggest that toxic childhood is a new phenomena when it isn’t
  • more information availability has led to more paranoid parenting
174
Q

westernisation of childhood

A

western notion of childhood is spreading around the world

shown by:
- campaigns of universal education
- United Nations universal rights of the child
- globalised tv and media

175
Q

the new sociology of childhood and how current sociologists see childhood

A
  • Children as passive puppets in society
  • Children as socialisation projects - Mayall
  • Children are active agents playing a major part in creating their own childhoods.
  • Acknowledges the need to include the children in the study of childhood - Smart
  • Focuses on the present tense of childhood from a child’s perspective - Mayall
  • Uses unstructured interviews to allow children to express their views.
176
Q

children during the victorian period

A
  • Working-class children were expected to engage in paid work.
  • They would work long hours in unsafe conditions.
  • Children were often required to take on ‘adult work’ at home, like taking care of sick relatives.
  • Social attitudes towards children started to change in the middle of the 19th century.
177
Q

march of progress with children

A
  • position of children in western societies has been steadily improving and today is better than ever
178
Q

how has legal improvements improved childhood?

A
  • There were several ‘factories acts’ throughout the 19th century, which gradually improved the rights of (typically male) workers by limiting working hours, and many of these acts had clauses which banned factories from employing people under certain ages.
  • The 1833 Factories Act was the first act to restrict child labour – it made it illegal for textile factories to employ children under the age of nine and required factories to provide any children aged 9-13 with at least 12 hours of education a week.
  • The 1867 Factories Act extended this idea to all factories – this act made it illegal for any factors to employ children under the age of 8 and provide children aged 8-13 with at least 10 hours of education a week.
  • The 1878 Factories Act placed a total ban on the employment of children under the age of 10, fitting in nicely with the introduction of education policies.
  • The 1870 Education Act introduced Education for all children aged 5-12, although this was voluntary at the time.
  • In 1880 it became compulsory for all children to attend school aged 5-12, with the responsibility for attendance falling on the Local Education Authorities.
  • The next century saw the gradual increasing of the school leaving age and increase in funding for education.
179
Q

how has rights of the child improved childhood?

A

The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child outlines several rights children have including the right

  • to be heard.
  • to an identity
  • not to be exploited
  • to an education.
180
Q

how has welfare services improved childhood?

A

The introduction of child protection and welfare legislation, and its expansion into every aspect of child-services through Safeguarding policies.The government introduced several policies over the last century which protect children from engaging in potentially harmful activities.

181
Q

how has child central improved childhood?

A

Changes such as those outlined above suggest our society has become more child centred over the last century or so. Children today occupy a more central role than ever. The government and parents spend more money on children than ever and children are the ‘primary concern’ of many public services and often the sole thing that gives meaning to the lives of many parents.

182
Q

Cunningham (2006): view on child centred society

A
  • Childhood is regarded as the opposite of adulthood – children in particular are viewed as being in need of protection from the adult world.
  • Child and adult worlds are separated – they have different social spaces – playground and school for children, work and pubs for adults.
  • Childhood is increasingly associated with rights.
183
Q

criticisms of childhood improving

A

Some would argue that these are not improvements in childhood, they have instead resulted in helicopter parenting and children with a lack of resilience.

184
Q

helicopter parenting

A

Parents which hover around their children removing all obstacles and solving all problems for them.

185
Q

conflict view of childhood

A

society is based on inequality between children (gender, ethnicity, class) and between children and adults

186
Q

gender inequality between children

A

Mayer Hillman (1993)

  • Gender differences in experiences of childhood.
  • Boys are more likely to be able to do certain things, like cycle on roads, use buses, or go out after dark unaccompanied.
187
Q

ethnic differences between children

A

Julia Brennan (1994)

  • Brennan found that experiences of childhood differ depending on ethnicity.
  • She found Asian parents were more likely to be strict towards their daughters.
188
Q

class differences between children

A

Caroline Woodroffe (1993)

  • Poor mothers are more likely to have low birth-weight babies, which may delay physical and intellectual development.
  • Children from manual backgrounds are more likely to be hyperactive, as well as suffer from long-standing illnesses
189
Q

inequality between adults and children

A
  • Child liberationists see the need to free children from adult control, and currently see children as too tightly controlled. Childhood has become oppressive.
  • Sociologists such as Frank Furedi argue that parents overprotect their children: we live in the age of ‘Paranoid Parenting’.
  • Diana Gittins uses the term ‘age patriarchy’ to describe the inequalities between adults and children.
  • ‘Age patriarchy’, the older generations oppress dominate children. Not allowing them the freedom to adequately experience childhood.
190
Q

how are children oppressed by time?

A

From the time children start school, children’s time begins to be hugely controlled. Arguably, however, their time is controlled before this, with parents deciding mealtimes, bedtimes, even the speed at which children can grow up (controlling levels of responsibility).

191
Q

how are children controlled by space?

A

Children’s movement is heavily regulated. There are specific areas where children can play or go. These places tend to have more CCTV and more supervision. Technology has allowed adults to monitor the movement of children more easily.

192
Q

how are children controlled by resources?

A

In industrial societies, children have limited access to earning money, so children remain dependent upon adults for resources - food, toys, clothes, etc. Some children will be given an allowance, and will be allowed to spend this how they choose, however this is still determined by the adult.

193
Q

how are children controlled by bodies?

A

Adults exercise great control over children’s’ bodies: what they wear, how they sit, how they stand, not picking their nose, not scratching, etc. To a certain extent, even your weight is controlled and determined by an adult.

194
Q

how does child abuse and neglect work?

A
  • isn’t always just adult/child can be sibling abuse
  • increase in child abuse and neglect according to child liberationists
  • SPCC in 2011 found that 1 in 5 children had been severely maltreated during childhood most by a parent or guardian.
  • In 2013 the DfE reported that there were nearly 43,100 children subject to child protection orders.
  • It is likely that more abuse does go on at home (but unreported) as Childline the confidential helpline for children, as their statistics indicate much more abuse by parents.
195
Q

demography

A

study of population and its changes

196
Q

birth rates

A

total number of live births per thousand members of the population per year

  • birth rate fell between 1950-2023
197
Q

total fertility rates

A

The Total Fertility Rate (TFR) is the average number of live children that a group of women would have if they experienced the age-specific fertility rates for the calendar year in question throughout their childbearing lifespan.

The Total Fertility Rate declined from 2.9 babies per woman in 1960 to just 1.6 babies per woman in 2022.

198
Q

causes for the change in birth rates

A
  • contraception
  • changing role of woman
  • economic factors
  • attitudes to childbearing
  • decline in infant mortality
199
Q

impact of the change in birth rates

A
  • Labour force
  • uneven dependency ratio
  • immigration
  • smaller families
200
Q

death rate

A

The death rate is the number of deaths in relation to the number of people in a population. It is normally measured per hundred thousand or per thousand people.

The death rate is also known as the mortality rate.

201
Q

death rate stats

A
  • The death rate has halved in the last century, declining from 23/1000 in 1840 to 10/1000 today.
  • The death rate decreased most rapidly between 1840 and 1930.
  • Since 1930 the death rate has declined overall, but at a slower rate.
  • There were spikes in the death rate during WW1 and WW2 (not shown on the graph below)..
    The death rate has increased since 2010, when the Tory government came to power.
202
Q

why has there been a decline in death rate: economic growth and improved living standards

A
  • Better food and nutrition (which in turn is related to - better transport networks and refrigeration) which has meant that children are better able to resist infectious diseases, reducing the infant and child mortality rates. This is estimated to account for 50% of the decline in the death rate.
  • Smaller families means a reduction in the transmission of infectious diseases.
  • Better heating and less damp housing means less illness.
  • more income = more taxation = better public services
203
Q

why has there been a decline in death rate: medical advances

A
  • Mass immunisation programmes limited the spread of infectious diseases such as measles.
  • Improving survival rates from ‘diseases of affluence’ such as heart disease and cancers.
204
Q

why has there been a decline in death rate: social policies

A
  • The setting up of the NHS
  • Health and safety laws
  • The clean air act and other policies designed to reduce pollution.
  • Health and safety laws: which legislate so that we have clean drinking water, food hygiene standards and safe sewage and waste disposal.
205
Q

life expectancy

A

average number of years a person is expected to live within a specific society or culture

206
Q

what has contributed to life expectancy

A
  • nutrition
  • improved medical care
  • health and safety legislation
  • lifestyle changes
  • public health measures
207
Q

what are the impacts of an ageing population: an increased dependency ratio

A
  • Decreased death rates, and increased life expectancy has led to an increase in an older population.
  • This then increases the strain on public services, such as the NHS.
  • More public spending has to go on pensions and healthcare.
208
Q

what are the impacts of an ageing population: more problems with health and old age

A
  • Geriatric conditions or illnesses like dementia, Alzheimer’s, elderly diabetes.
  • More strain on health services.
209
Q

what are the impacts of an ageing population: burden on families

A
  • With the changing status of children, children are now much more central to family life.
  • Children now have to spend more time looking after both their own children and their parents in their old age.
  • This is known as the ‘sandwich generation’.
210
Q

what are the impacts of an ageing population: an increase in single person households

A
  • The divorce rate for the over-60s is increasing
  • People are also choosing to live alone when their partner dies.
  • This then puts more strain on housing because we need more houses for these individual people.
  • This also leads to more loneliness and isolation.
211
Q

What evidence is there for ageing populations not being a problem

A
  • Baby booms and increased immigration mean higher birth rates, preventing problems with the dependency ratio.
  • Healthy life expectancy is increasing, meaning that there are less chronic health issues experienced by all.
  • Multigenerational households have emerged, with grandparents being a useful alternative to childcare.
  • Lots of of the problems are actually based in stereotypes.
212
Q

immigration

A

coming to live permanently in a foreign country

213
Q

emigration

A

relocation of process of people leaving one country to reside in another

214
Q

migration

A

the movement of a person or people from one country to settle in another.

215
Q

push factors to make someone leave a country

A
  • conflict
  • lack of employment
  • lack of resources
  • poverty
  • political situation
216
Q

pull factors to make people come into a country

A
  • education
  • employment
  • standard of living
  • family
  • climate
217
Q

what impact does migration have on family life?

A
  • population size increasing
  • age structure changing
  • dependence ratio changes
  • changes to demography of the UK
  • multiculturalism
  • impacts on social policies
  • hybridity
  • migration has become a political issue
  • rise in nationalism
218
Q

citizen

A

a legally recognised subject of a state or commonwealth to be there

219
Q

denizen

A

a person, animal or plant that lives or is found in a particular place

220
Q

helot

A

the most exploited group

221
Q

hierarchal identity

A

describes a stratified system where people have clear positions or lines of authority

222
Q

hybrid identity

A

a product of the fusion of two or more types of identity

223
Q

transnational identity

A

people who have cross-cultural living experiences between the home country and the host countries

224
Q

what effect has economic globalisation had on society?

A
  • Economic globalisation: increased trade and economic growth
  • Increased migration: more people coming to the UK from other countries
  • Globalisation of media: more global media flows penetrating family life
  • Increased risk and uncertainty. These are also part of of post-modernisation
  • Greater gender equality is also a global trend
225
Q

what effect has increased migration had on society?

A
  • Increasing migration to the U.K. means there is increasing cultural diversity and diversity of family structures.
  • More families are stretched across national borders and have family members living abroad.
  • Immigrant families to the UK have on average higher birth rates than non-immigrant families.
226
Q

what effect has globalisation of media had on society?

A
  • More people create global friendship groups based on shared interests online.
  • Globalisation also means more media flows. Children are more active users of media, meaning they are more exposed to global media events
227
Q

what effect has increased risk and uncertainty had on society?

A
  • More diversity, choice and uncertainty, resulting in decline of people committing to long term relationships.
  • It is also more difficult to maintain long term relationships. Hence we have much higher rates of divorce in our global age.
  • Globalisation and post-modernisation are closely related. The new family norms are the pure relationship and the negotiated family.
228
Q

what is social policy

A

the plans and actions of state agencies such as health and social services, the welfare benefits system and schools and other bodies.

229
Q

material support policies

A
  • working tax credits
  • child tax credits
  • statutory maternity pay
230
Q

physical support policies

A
  • maternity and paternity leave
  • child protection policies
  • early years childcare provision
231
Q

functionalists social policy

A

Policies help maintain social solidarity and help the family to perform their functions better.

232
Q

new right social policy

A

Prefer policies which promote self sufficiency and the traditional nuclear family.

233
Q

marxist social policy

A

See policies as a way for the ruling class to maintain capitalist control.

234
Q

feminist social policy

A

family policies assume a particular type of family (nuclear) which mean that policies help to oppress women and maintain patriarchy.

235
Q

timeline of social policies

A
  • The Beveridge report (1942): Establishment of the welfare state including benefits system and the NHS.
  • Legislation of contraceptives (1967): Allowed unmarried women to access the contraceptive pill which had been available to married women since 1961.
  • Divorce reform act (1969): Allowed women to divorce their husbands without having to prove adultery, abandonment or abuse. Divorce after 2 years of separation. No longer required an act of parliament to Divorce.
  • Employment protection act (1975): Many women were sacked for becoming pregnant until the late 1970s and the UK only introduced its first maternity leave legislation through the Employment Protection Act 1975.
236
Q

conservative policies

A
  • The children’s act (1989): The concept of parental responsibility.
  • That a child’s welfare is the main consideration when the court is considering a question about a child’s upbringing. That children are best looked after by their family unless intervention in family life is essential.
  • The child support agency CSA (1993): support children by collecting funds from non-resident parents and paying these funds to parents with care.
  • Married man’s tax allowance: Marriage Allowance lets you transfer £1,260 of your Personal Allowance to your husband, wife or civil partner. This reduces their tax by up to £252 in the tax year (6 April to 5 April the next year).
  • Section 28: was a legislative designation for a series of laws across Britain that prohibited the “promotion of homosexuality” by local authorities.
  • Illegitimate children given the same rights as those who had married parents.
237
Q

New labour policies

A
  • Working family tax credit (WFTC): a state benefit in the United Kingdom made to people who work and receive a low income. It was introduced in April 2003 and is a means-tested benefit.
  • The new deal: relief for the unemployed and for the poor, recovery of the economy back to normal levels, and reform of the financial system to prevent a repeat of the depression.
  • Parenting order for parents of unruly children.
  • Longer maternity leave.
  • Civil partnership act.
  • Allowed unmarried and same sex adoption.
238
Q

coalition government policies

A
  • Modernists: acceptance of diversity within the family.
  • Traditionalists: who favour the new right view of the traditional nuclear family.
  • Removed couples penalty from tax credits.
  • Introduced shared parental leave.
  • Equal marriage act.
239
Q

conservative government policies

A
  • Reintroduction of the married couples tax allowance.
  • 2 child cap on child tax credits.
  • Civil partnership for hetrosexual couples.

Sociology (3 decks)

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