FDSC 406 Exam 1 Flashcards

Question

What are the important ions in neurotransmission?

Answer 1

Na+ K+ Ca2+

Answer 2

- Vesicles (containing neurotransmitters) are released from terminals. Vesicle fuse with presynaptic membrane releasing the neurotransmitters into synaptic cleft--they can then diffuse across the synaptic cleft and bind with receptor sites on postsynaptic endings to influence the electrical response in the postsynaptic neuron--makes the neuron more or less likely to fire an action potential - If the number of excitatory postsynaptic events is large enough, they will add to cause an action potential in the postsynaptic cell and a continuation of the "message."

Answer 3

Sympathetic: Fight or flight -Dilates pupil -Inhibits flow of saliva -Accelerates heartbeat -Dilates bronchi -Inhibits peristalsis and secretion -Conversion of glycogen to glucose -Secretion of adrenaline and noradrenaline -Inhibits bladder contraction Parasympathetic: Rest and digest -Contracts pupils -Stimulates flow of saliva -Slows heartbeat -Constricts bronchi -Stimulates peristalsis -Stimulates release of bile -contracts bladder

Answer 4

Autonomic: include the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system Somatic: voluntary control of body movements via skeletal muscles. Uses spinal nerves, cranial nerves, and association nerves

Answer 5

Physically isolates and protects the CNS - Consists of blood ~(Lymphocytes, monocytes and neutrophil) - BBB: Tight junction, endothelial cell, basement membrane - Brain: Astrocytes and microglia

Answer 6

``` -Acetylcholine Monoamines: -Dopamine -Epinepherine -Seratonin Amino Acids: -Glutamate (Tyrosine is an important precursor to all) ```

Answer 7

- Re-uptake | - Metabolism

Answer 8

Acetylcholine--(OH-(AChe))-->Acetate + Choline

Answer 9

-Skeletal, smooth and cardiac muscles

Answer 10

- Attached to bones either directly or indirectly with tendons - Considered voluntary - Work in pairs-- one flexor and one extensor - Flexor bends the join and the extensor straightens it - Muscles move bones by pulling on the bone (do not push) - Made of bundles of muscle fibers

Answer 11

- The functional unit of myofibril (in muscle fiber) - Thick filament (between thin filament horizontally to the sides) of groups of myosin consist of heads and tails - Thin filament (3 proteins): Actin, Tropomyosin, and Troponin

Answer 12

-Are individual muscle cells that contain myofibrils

Answer 13

- The sarcoplasmic reticulum is found in specific types of muscle fibers. - The function of the sarcoplasmic reticulum is to store calcium ions and then release them into the body. - These calcium ions are absorbed when the muscles are in a relaxed position and released as the muscles contract.

Answer 14

Actin is a protein on the thin filament that is a binding site for myosin heads from thick filament. - They form a cross bridge--which then bend inward pulling the thin filament toward the center of the sarcomere - These cross bridges are broken and reformed further down--energy for their formation comes from the hydrolysis of ATP by the head region of the myosin. - Contracts when stimulated by motor neurons

Answer 15

- The nerve impulse causes the release of acetylcholine from the motor end plate. - This causes the depolarization of the membrane of the adjacent muscle cell. - Depolarization triggers the release of Ca ions from the sarcoplasmic reticulum inside the muscle cell. - In the presence of ATP, the high Ca level causes the myosin heads to bend, dragging actin filaments towards the middle of the unit of contraction.

Answer 16

- Calcium and ATP are cofactors (nonprotein components of enzymes) required for the contraction of muscle cells. - ATP supplies the energy: ATP hydrolysis provides the energy for myosin to go through this cycling: to release actin, change its conformation, contract, and repeat the process again - Calcium is required by two proteins, troponin and tropomyosin, that regulate muscle contraction by blocking the binding of myosin to filamentous actin

Answer 17

~ Riga mortis?

Answer 18

- Found primarily in muscles--helps supply energy to all cells in the body - This is achieved by increasing the formation of ATP.

Answer 19

- Slow twitch: designed for endurance as well as strength. Will grow by splitting. Will only grow into another. Mainly aerobic. - Fast twitch: more for explosive power. Divide geometrically--capable of generating multiple fibers from the stress that has been put on it. Mainly anaerobic.

Answer 20

- Muscle fatigue - Low sodium - Low potassium

Answer 21

- Heart - Arteries - Veins - Capillaries

Answer 22

- Superior Vena Cava: Oxygen poor blood from the upper body returns to the heart - Right Atrium: forces o2 poor blood through the tricuspid valve to the right ventricle - Right Ventricle: O2 poor blood and pumps into the pulmonary value (into the lungs through pulmonary artery) - Inferior Vena Cava: O2 poor blood from lower body into the heart - Pulmonary Artery: heart to lungs to pick up O2 - Pulmonary Vein: carries O2-rich blood from lungs to heart - Left Atrium: collects O2-rich blood and pushes through the mitral valve into the left ventricle - Left Ventricle: largest and strongest chamber in the heart--pushes blood up through your aorta and into the body - Aorta: largest artery carries O2-rich blood from heart to body

Answer 23

- The sinoatrial (SA) node, located in the right atrium of your heart: electrical signal when right atrium is full with blood--contracts and sends blood into the right ventricle - The atrioventricular (AV) node, located on the interatrial septum close to the tricuspid valve - The His-Purkinje system, located along the walls of your heart's ventricles: and left (pushes blood through aortic valve to body) contracts a bit before the right ventricle (pushes blood to pulmonary valve to lung)

Answer 24

- Pacemaker cells: create rhythmical impulses and directly control the heart rate. Autorythmic cells have no resting potential - Contractile cells: contract and eject blood from the heart. Sympathetic nervous system stimulation increases its force of contraction. Have a resting potential--action potential--plateau--tension development (contraction)

Answer 25

- SA signals 100 bpm - Parasympathetic slows it. - Sympathetic speeds it up.

Answer 26

Arteries: carry oxygenated blood--narrow but thick which enable them to maintain a high blood pressure Arterioles: smaller in diameter--carry smaller volumes of blood--but are more numerous--effectively surround the organs and tissue to ensure organ/tissue receives O2 or removes CO2 Capillaries: only thick enough to let 1 RBC at a time = slower transport ~more time for diffusion and osmosis to take place. Veins: carry de-oxygenated blood and are very dilate and thin--they do not need to carry blood at high pressures

Answer 27

Arteries: largest blood vessel: connective tissue, smooth muscle and endothelial tissue. Veins: still three layers but the endothelial walls are thinner b/e less pressure--but has valves which help blood get back to heart Capillaries: connect arteries w/ veins--exchange oxygen, nutrients and waste. Cell walls are only one layer thick.

Answer 28

- It results from relaxation of smooth muscle cells within the vessel walls, particularly in the large veins, large arteries, and smaller arterioles. - Nerve signal release NO gas into the smooth muscle from the endothelial cells causing larger blood vessel volume

Answer 29

- Blood cells are made in the bone marrow | - left and right coronary arteries

Answer 30

Murmurs are pathologic heart sounds that are produced as a result of turbulent blood flow that is sufficient to produce audible noise. Murmurs may also be the result of various problems, such as narrowing or leaking of valves, or the presence of abnormal passages through which blood flows in or near the heart.

Answer 31

- Kidneys: help maintain homeostasis by regulating the concentration and volume of body fluids. For example, the amount of H+ and HCO3 - secreted by the kidneys controls the body's pH. - Ureters - Bladder - Urethra

Answer 32

- Cortex - Medulla - Pelvis - Hilus - Nephrons are the filtering units that do all the work

Answer 33

-Located at the beginning of the nephron inside the kidney. -First step in blood filtration. -Surrounded by Bowman's capsule. -Blood filters through the capillaries of the glomerulus into B's capsule through fenestrae filter salt and sugar--which then empties the filtrate into a tubule. -A glomerulus receives its blood supply from an afferent arteriole of the renal circulation. Unlike most other capillary beds, the glomerulus drains into an efferent arteriole rather than a venule. The resistance of these arterioles results in high pressure within the glomerulus, aiding the process of ultrafiltration, where fluids and soluble materials in the blood are forced out of the capillaries and into Bowman's capsule. A glomerulus and its surrounding Bowman's capsule constitu

Answer 34

-Build up concentration of solute to use as solution gradient - Proximal convoluted tubule: reabsorption of water, ions and all organic nutrients -As solute travels down the decending limb water and Na+ decrease in conc. -Loop of Henle: further reabsorption of water (descending) and sodium and chloride ions (ascending limb)~ some part are water impermeable so concentration goes down. -Distal convoluted tubule: secretion of ions, acids, drugs, toxins. Variable reabsorption of water and sodium ions (under hormonal control) H2O permeable--re-concentrated -Collecting duct: Variable reabsorption of H2O and reabsorption or secretion of Na+, K, H+, and bicarbonate ions. -Papillary duct: delivery of urine to minor calyx Substance, avg% reabsorbed, avg% excrete Water, 99, 1 Na+, 99.5, 0.5 Glucose, 100, 0 Urea, 50, 50 Phenol, 0, 100

Answer 35

- The waste produced by the body after metabolizing protein. - Naturally, the compound is produced when the liver breaks down protein or amino acids, and ammonia; the kidneys then transfer the urea from the blood to the urine. - Extra nitrogen is expelled from the body through urea, and because it is extremely soluble, it is a very efficient process.

Answer 36

- The human body does not maintain a constant water volume, the kidneys have to compensate for the lack of or excess of water consumed. - The kidneys use a transport system called the counter-current mechanism to accomplish this). - The concentration first increases in the direction of flow, then decreases as flow continues through the ascending parallel loop. - The mechanism relies on the adjacent, parallel loops of Henle and vasa recta. - The maximum urine concentration is limited by the interstitial fluid concentration at the bottom of the loops of Henle. The urine leaving the collecting tubule has the same concentration as the interstitial fluid at that point. The interstitial concentrations are largely a function of blood flow in the three regions. In the cortex, the lower concentrations are the result of the large blood flow in the peritubular capillaries. The capillary blood carries away excess solute and water in the region. In the medulla, the only blood flow is in the vasa recta, approximately 10% of the cortical blood flow. The loop structure of the vasa recta keeps the entering and exiting concentration the same. While solute is absorbed in the descending loop, an equal amount of solute is secreted in the ascending loop.

Answer 37

- The working uint of the kidney, moves nutrients through gradient

Answer 38

-Ureters: carries urine from kidneys to bladder -Bladder: hollow muscular organ that stores urine. The bladder is made up of the detrusor muscle, when full--pressure sensors send signals along the pelvic nerves to the spinal cord~ relax signal is sent back to the bladder which make the detrusor muscles in the bladder wall to contract. This increases pressure and urine is released -Urethra: has valves know as the urinary sphincter Sphincters: internal--holds neck of bladder in place--body opens and shuts it automatically. External(distal--controlled by the pudendal nerve--voluntary nervous system.

Answer 39

- Filtration occurs under pressure: - Glomerular hydrostatic pressure(blood pressure) promotes filtration = 60 mm Hg - Capsular hydrostatic pressure opposes filtration = 15 mm Hg - Glomerular osmotic pressure opposes filtration - 28 mm Hg Net filtration pressure: 60 mm Hg -(15 mm Hg + 28 mm Hg) = 17 mm Hg -filtration rate can be regulated depend on stress of pressure--release of vasoconstrictors

Answer 40

- Mouth: chewing breaks down food into pieces more digestible. Saliva mixes with food into a form your body can absorb and use - Esophagus: receives food from swallowing. Delivers food to stomach through series of muscular contractions called peristalsis - Liver: process the nutrients absorbed from the small intestine. Bile aids digestion of fats in s-intestines. Takes raw materials absorbed by the intestine and makes all the various chemicals the body needs to function. Detoxifies potentially harmful chemicals (breakdown and secretes drugs) - Gallbladder: stores and concentrates bile. releases it into the duodenum to help absorb and digest fats - Stomach: hold food while being mixed with enzymes that continue to breakdown food into usable forms. Cells in lining secrete strong acid and powerful enzymes. When food is sufficiently processed it is released into the small intestines - Pancreas: secretes digestive enzymes into the duodenum which break down protein, fats, and carbs. Also makes insulin(hormone for metabolizing sugar), secretes it directly into bloodstream. - Small intestine: 3 segments, duodenum, jejunum, ileum--breaks down food using enzymes released by pancreas and bile from liver. Peristalsis also moves food through and mixes chime with digestive secretions. - Duodenum: continuos breaking-down process - Jejunum and ileum: responsible for absorption of nutrients into the bloodstream. - Colon: ascending, transverse, descending. Stool/waste left over from the digestive process, is passed through the colon by peristalsis, first in a liquid state and then in a solid form. As stool passes through the colon, water is removed. The stool is mostly food debris and bacteria. These bacteria synthesize various vitamins, processing waste products and food particles, and protecting against harmful bacteria. When the descending colon becomes full of stool, it empties its contents into the rectum to begin the process of elimination. - Rectum: let the person know that there is stool to be released, and to hold the stool. When anything (gas or stool) comes into the rectum, sensors send a message to the brain - Anal canal, anus: 2-inch long canal consisting of the pelvic floor muscles and the two anal sphincters (internal and external)

Answer 41

The villi are the parts that absorb nutrients from food and pass them into the bloodstream. - Villi are also covered with microvilli. The purpose of both structures is to increase the small intestine’s surface area so that nutrient absorption is enhanced. - Each villus is also coated in enzymes that aid digestion. - Amino acids and nutrients found in food are absorbed by villus capillaries via a process called diffusion. - Villi are also able to trap larger pieces of food and hold onto it until it can be digested by the enzymes coating it.

Answer 42

- Amylase: breaks down starches into maltose and dextrin - Lipase: breaks down lipids - 98% water - 0.7-1.5L/d - Controlled by the autonomic nervous system

Answer 43

- Mucus Neck Cells: in the isthmus of gland--generates mucus which stands b/w stomach lining and acid in stomach--creates protective layer. - Parietal Cells: body of gland, secrete HCl. Acid secretion stimulated by vagus nerve (acetylcholine), histamine & gastrin signals. - Chief Cells: near base of gland, make enzymes used in digestion - Enteroedocrine Cells: near base of gland hormones "g" cells make gastrin

Answer 44

- Peristalsis is a distinctive pattern of smooth muscle contractions that propels food through the esophagus and intestines. - Food or water enters the gastrointestinal tract, the muscles start to compress and relax in a wave-like motion to push the material through. - The muscles further up stay contracted so that the food can't work its way back up, and eventually, the food reaches the stomach. - The small intestines are constantly pushing material along so that it can be further broken down and digested

Answer 45

- Bolus drops into the cardia, then pushed up into the fundus, where its held for upwards of 40-60 minutes with minimal stomach acid being produced -- about 30% of full levels, not enough to render digestive enzymes inactive. While in the fundus, enzymatic digestion (from live enzymes present in the food, salivary enzymes introduced while chewing, or supplemental digestive enzymes taken with your meal) takes place. Up to 75% of digestion can take place during this phase -- or none at all if there are no enzymes present. - HCl secretion cleaves(on the carboxy side of leucine and phenylalanine) pepsinogen (inactive) to make pepsin (active) which starts to digest food.

Answer 46

- Duodenum: Stomach empties contents. Bile duct excretes bile (to increase surface area of fat--emulsify). Pancreas secrete pancreatic juice via the pancreatic duct. Pancreatic juice contains these enzymes: lipase for fat digestion, amylase for starch digestion and trypsinogen (becomes trypsin) for protein digestion. Also contain sodium bicarbonate to make an alkaline (raise) pH environment. Overall aqueous environment, lots of nutrient absorption. - Transporters for: peptides, AA, glucose, and sodium - Jejunum:Intestinal juice is secreted by all three parts. It contains these enzymes: Erepsin for peptone digestion, lipase for fat digestion, maltase to digest maltose, sucrase to digest sucrose and lactase to digest lactose. - Active transport of AA, peptides, vitamins, glucose. Passive transport fructose. pH= 7-9 - Ileum: the walls of the ileum contain villi which absorb the end-products of digestion. - Active transport of Vitamin B-12, bile salts, AA, and glucose. Lymphoid tissue (Galt--pro-biotics--sends signal). pH= 7-8

Answer 47

-Chymotrypsinogen--Trypsin)-->Chymotrypsin Bicarbonate: raise pH (more basic) Lipase(fat): Triacylglycerol + H2O--> diacylglycerol + a fatty acid anion Amylase(carb) Trypsinogen(protein) All become activated by precursors when gastric chyme passes into the duodenum

Answer 48

- The liver produces bile, including bile salts and the gallbladder stores it. - Bile is secreted into the digestive tract from the gallbladder to help digestion. Here, bile salts aid in the absorption of certain food components, such as fats, and prevent the absorption of others, such as toxins. - Bile salts are made up of sodium salts of different acids manufactured in the liver and derived from cholesterol. - They help emulsify fats and contribute to their absorption in the intestines.

Answer 49

- Exocrine glands release their products onto body surfaces, like the skin, or into cavities, such as those inside the digestive tract and tend to be relatively simple and have local effects like aiding digestion. - Endocrine glands secrete substances directly into the bloodstream, release hormones that travel throughout the body and regulate blood sugar.

Answer 50

- Islets of Langerhans--Endocrine cells - Alpha cells: produce glucagon, which breaks down glycogen into glucose - Beta cells: produce insulin - Delta cells: produce somatostatin - PP cells: produce pancreatic polypeptide - Epsilon cells: produce ghrelin Pancreatic Acini--Exocrine cells: Centroacinar cells: bicarbonate--raise pH Acinar cells: produce digestive enzymes--active and start breakdown

Answer 51

-Ascending colon & transverse colon: water and electrolyte reabsorption -Descending colon: storage depot No digestive enzymes -Bacteria fermentation: 1000 trillion microbes, gut health and metabolism -Colonocytes line colon get most of their energy from acetic acid from microbes. -Microbes have enzymes that can break down fiber--fiber helps keep cells normal. -Gas is a result of microbes break down of soluble fibers to acetate and butyrate

Answer 52

- Gastrin: is in the stomach and stimulates the gastric glands to secrete pepsinogen (an inactive form of the enzyme pepsin) and hydrochloric acid. Secretion of gastrin is stimulated by food arriving in stomach. The secretion is inhibited by low pH . - Secretin: is in the duodenum and signals the secretion of sodium bicarbonate in the pancreas and it stimulates the bile secretion in the liver. This hormone responds to the acidity of the chyme. - Cholecystokinin (CCK): is in the duodenum and stimulates the release of digestive enzymes in the pancreas and stimulates the emptying of bile in the gall bladder. This hormone is secreted in response to fat in chyme. - Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP): is in the duodenum and decreases the stomach churning in turn slowing the emptying in the stomach. Another function is to induce insulin secretion. - Motilin: is in the duodenum and increases the migrating myoelectric complex component of gastrointestinal motility and stimulates the production of pepsin.

Answer 53

-Ghrelin is a hormone produced mainly by the P/D1 cells lining the fundus 7 Epsilon cells in pancreas. The key role ghrelin plays is that it stimulates hunger. It is considered the counterpart of the hormone leptin, produced by fatty tissue, which induces satiation when present at higher levels.

Answer 54

- Alpha cells produce glucagon which breaks down glycogen into glucose, which raises blood glucose - Beta cells produce insulin which lowers blood glucose

FDSC 406 Exam 1 Flashcards

(78 cards)