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Feralis 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

Ionic bond - transfer of electrons from [….]

A

Ionic bond - transfer of electrons from [one atom to another (different electronegativity)]

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2
Q

Covalent – electrons are […..]

A

Covalent – electrons are [shared between atoms (similar electronegativities)] – can be single, double, triple

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3
Q

Nonpolar covalent bonds = […] sharing of electrons, […..] electronegativity

A

Nonpolar covalent bonds = [equal] sharing of electrons, [identical] electronegativity

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4
Q

Polar covalent bonds = unequal sharing of electrons (different electronegativity and […..])

A

polar covalent bonds = unequal sharing of electrons (different electronegativity and [formation of a dipole])

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5
Q

Hydrogen bond – weak bond between molecules with a hydrogen attached to a […..] and is attracted to a negative charge on another molecule (F, O, N)

A

Hydrogen bond – weak bond between molecules with a hydrogen attached to a [highly electronegative atom] and is attracted to a negative charge on another molecule (F, O, N)

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6
Q

Properties of Water

1. Excellent solvent: […..] break up charged ionic molecules.

A

Properties of Water

1. Excellent solvent: [dipoles of H2O] break up charged ionic molecules.

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7
Q

Properties of Water
2. High Heat Capacity: heat capacity is the degree in which a substance [….]. The temp of large water body are very stable in response to temp changes of surrounding air; must add large amount of energy to warm up water. High heat of vaporization as well.

A

Properties of Water
2. High Heat Capacity: heat capacity is the degree in which a substance [changes temp in response to gain/loss of heat]. The temp of large water body are very stable in response to temp changes of surrounding air; must add large amount of energy to warm up water. High heat of vaporization as well.

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8
Q

Properties of Water

3. Ice Floats: water expands as it [……..] (H-bonds become rigid and form a crystal that keeps molecules separated).

A

Properties of Water
3. Ice Floats: water expands as it [freezes, becomes less dense than its liquid form] (H-bonds become rigid and form a crystal that keeps molecules separated).

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9
Q

Properties of Water
4. Cohesion/Surface tension: attraction between like substances due to [….]; the strong cohesion between H2O molecules produces a high surface tension.

A

Properties of Water
4. Cohesion/Surface tension: attraction between like substances due to [H-bonds]; the strong cohesion between H2O molecules produces a high surface tension.

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10
Q

Properties of Water
5. Adhesion: attraction of [……]. (wet finger and flip pages); capillary action: ability of liquid to flow […..] (e.g. against gravity)

A

Properties of Water
5. Adhesion: attraction of [unlike substances]. (wet finger and flip pages); capillary action: ability of liquid to flow [without external forces] (e.g. against gravity)

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11
Q

Organic Molecules –
Have carbon atoms. Macromolecules form monomers (1 unit) which form [….] (series of repeating monomers)
4 of carbon’s 6 atoms are available to form bonds with other atoms

A

Organic Molecules –
Have carbon atoms. Macromolecules form monomers (1 unit) which form [polymers] (series of repeating monomers)
4 of carbon’s 6 atoms are available to form bonds with other atoms

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12
Q

Functional Groups

[…..] (OH): polar and hydrophilic

A

Functional Groups

[Hydroxyl] (OH): polar and hydrophilic

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13
Q

Functional Groups

[….] (COOH): polar, hydrophilic, weak acid

A

Functional Groups

[Carboxyl] (COOH): polar, hydrophilic, weak acid

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14
Q

Functional Groups

[….] (NH2): polar, hydrophilic, weak base

A

Functional Groups

[Amino] (NH2): polar, hydrophilic, weak base

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15
Q

Functional Groups

[…..] (PO3): polar, hydrophilic, acid (sometimes shows as PO4?)

A

Functional Groups

[Phosphate] (PO3): polar, hydrophilic, acid (sometimes shows as PO4?)

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16
Q

Functional Groups

[…..] (C=O): polar and hydrophilic

A

Functional Groups

[Carbonyl] (C=O): polar and hydrophilic

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17
Q

Functional Groups

[…..] (H-C=O)

A

Functional Groups

[Aldehyde] (H-C=O)

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18
Q

Functional Groups

[…..] (R-C=O)

A

Functional Groups

[Ketone] (R-C=O)

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19
Q

Functional Groups

[……] (CH3): nonpolar and hydrophobic

A

Functional Groups

[Methyl] (CH3): nonpolar and hydrophobic

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20
Q

Carbohydrates

Monosaccharide = [….] sugar molecule (e.g. glucose and fructose)

A

Carbohydrates

Monosaccharide = [single] sugar molecule (e.g. glucose and fructose)

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21
Q

Carbohydrates

Monosaccharides are classified as alpha or beta based on position of OH on first (anomeric) carbon (down=[……])

A

Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides are classified as alpha or beta based on position of OH on first (anomeric) carbon (down=[alpha, up=beta])

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22
Q

Carbohydrates

Disaccharide = two sugar molecules joined by a […..] (joined by dehydration)

A

Carbohydrates

Disaccharide = two sugar molecules joined by a [glycosidic linkage] (joined by dehydration)

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23
Q

What are they made of?

sucrose […..], lactose [….], maltose […….]

A

sucrose [glu+fru], lactose [glu+gal], maltose [glu+glu]

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24
Q

Carbohydrates
Polysaccharide = series of [……]
Bond via [….], breakdown via […..]

A

Carbohydrates
Polysaccharide = series of [connected monosaccharides; polymer]
Bond via [dehydration synthesis], breakdown via [hydrolysis]

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25
Starch: a polymer of [......]; store energy in [......].
Starch: a polymer of [α-glucose molecules]; store energy in [plant cells].
26
Glycogen: a polymer of [.....]; store energy in [.....]. (differ in polymer branching from starch).
Glycogen: a polymer of [α-glucose molecules]; store energy in [animal cells]. (differ in polymer branching from starch).
27
Cellulose: a polymer of [......]; structural molecules for walls of [.....].
Cellulose: a polymer of [β-glucose]; structural molecules for walls of [plant cells and wood].
28
Chitin: polymer similar to cellulose; but each β-glucose has a [.........]. Structural molecule in [....]
Chitin: polymer similar to cellulose; but each β-glucose has a [nitrogen-containing group attached to ring]. Structural molecule in [fungal cell walls (also exoskeleton of insects, etc)]
29
Lipids: Hydro[....] molecules. Fxns: Insulation, energy storage, structural (cholesterol and phoslipids in membrane), endocrine
Lipids: Hydro[phobic] molecules. Fxns: Insulation, energy storage, structural (cholesterol and phoslipids in membrane), endocrine
30
Triglycerides (triacylglycerols) = three [......]
Triglycerides (triacylglycerols) = three [fatty acid chains attached to a glycerol backbone]
31
Triglycerides | Saturated: no [.....] (bad for health, saturated = straight chain = stack [.....])
Triglycerides | Saturated: no [double bonds] (bad for health, saturated = straight chain = stack [densely and form fat plaques])
32
Triglycerides | Unsaturated: [.....] bonds present (better for health, unsaturated = double bonds cause [.....])
Triglycerides | Unsaturated: [double] bonds present (better for health, unsaturated = double bonds cause [branching = stack less dense])
33
Phospholipid: two fatty acids and a [.....] attached to a glycerol backbone
Phospholipid: two fatty acids and a [phosphate group (+R)] attached to a glycerol backbone
34
Phospholipids are amphipathic = both [.....]
Phospholipids are amphipathic = both [hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties]
35
Steroids = three [......] and one [.....] (hormones) and cholesterol ([......])
Steroids = three [6 membered rings] and one [5 membered ring] (hormones) and cholesterol ([membrane component)
36
Lipid Derivatives | Waxes – esters of [.....]. Used as [.....]
Lipid Derivatives | Waxes – esters of [fatty acids and monohydroxylic alcohols]. Used as [protective coating or exoskeleton (lanolin)]
37
Lipid Derivatives | Steroids (sex hormones, cholesterol, corticosteroids) – [......] structure
Lipid Derivatives | Steroids (sex hormones, cholesterol, corticosteroids) – [4 ringed] structure
38
Lipid Derivatives Carotenoids – fatty acid carbon chains w/ [.......] at each end. Pigments which produce [.....] in plants and animals. Subgroups include Carotenes and xanthophylls
Lipid Derivatives Carotenoids – fatty acid carbon chains w/ [conjugated double bounds and six membered C-rings] at each end. Pigments which produce [colors] in plants and animals. Subgroups include Carotenes and xanthophylls
39
Lipid Derivatives Porphyrins (tetrapyrroles) – 4 joined [.......]. Often complex w/ metal (e.g. prophyrin heme complexes with Fe in hemoglobin, chlorophyll w/ Mg)
Lipid Derivatives Porphyrins (tetrapyrroles) – 4 joined [pyrrole rings]. Often complex w/ metal (e.g. prophyrin heme complexes with Fe in hemoglobin, chlorophyll w/ Mg)
40
Adipocytes are specialized fat cells whose cytoplasm contains nothing but [.....]
Adipocytes are specialized fat cells whose cytoplasm contains nothing but [triglycerides]
41
glycolipids are like phospholipids but w/ [.....] instead of phosphate group
glycolipids are like phospholipids but w/ [carb group] instead of phosphate group
42
Lipids are insoluble so they are transported in blood via [.....] (lipid core surrounded by phospholipids and apolipoproteins).
Lipids are insoluble so they are transported in blood via [lipoproteins] (lipid core surrounded by phospholipids and apolipoproteins).
43
Note on lipids in membranes: Cell membranes need to maintain a certain degree of fluidity and are capable of changing membrane fatty acid composition to do so. In cold weather, to avoid rigidity, cells incorporate more [....] into the membrane as they have lower melting points and are kinked to increase fluidity. Warm weather climates show the opposite trend (?).
Note on lipids in membranes: Cell membranes need to maintain a certain degree of fluidity and are capable of changing membrane fatty acid composition to do so. In cold weather, to avoid rigidity, cells incorporate more [mono and polyunsaturated fatty acids] into the membrane as they have lower melting points and are kinked to increase fluidity. Warm weather climates show the opposite trend (?).
44
Unsaturated fatty acids have higher [.....] compared to saturated fatty acids. This is due to increased "kinks" in packing of the molecules as a result of the double bonds.
Unsaturated fatty acids have higher [boiling point but lower melting point] compared to saturated fatty acids. This is due to increased "kinks" in packing of the molecules as a result of the double bonds.
45
Double bonds in fatty acids increase [....], thus increasing boiling point but decreasing melting point due to less efficient packing.
Double bonds in fatty acids increase [bond polarity (area of increased electron density!)], thus increasing boiling point but decreasing melting point due to less efficient packing.
46
Proteins: Polymers of amino acids joined by [.....] bonds
Proteins: Polymers of amino acids joined by [peptide] bonds
47
Amino acid structure: H, NH2, COOH bonded to a central carbon and then a variable [.....]
Amino acid structure: H, NH2, COOH bonded to a central carbon and then a variable [R group]
48
Storage protein: [......] in milk, [.....] in egg whites, and [.....] in corn seeds.
Storage protein: [casein] in milk, [ovalbumin] in egg whites, and [zein] in corn seeds.
49
Transport protein: Hemoglobin carries [.....], cytochromes carry [......]
Transport protein: Hemoglobin carries [oxygen], cytochromes carry [electrons]
50
Enzymatic proteins: ATP contains [......] instead of deoxy-ribose.
Enzymatic proteins: ATP contains [ribose] instead of deoxy-ribose.
51
Enzymatic proteins: amylase catalyzes the rxn that breaks the α-glycosidic bonds in [......].
amylase catalyzes the rxn that breaks the α-glycosidic bonds in [starch].
52
Enzymes catalyze a reaction in both [.....] based on substrate.
Enzymes catalyze a reaction in both [forward and reverse directions] based on substrate.
53
Enzyme [.....] is determined by temp and pH
Enzyme [efficiency] is determined by temp and pH
54
Enzymes cannot change the [......] of a rxn
Enzymes cannot change the [spontaneity] of a rxn
55
Cofactors are [........] that assist enzymes.
Cofactors are [nonprotein molecules] that assist enzymes
56
Enzymes are almost always considered to be proteins, but sometimes RNA can [......]
Enzymes are almost always considered to be proteins, but sometimes RNA can [act as an enzyme].
57
Holoenzyme is the union of the [.....] (the enzyme is called [.....] when NOT combined w/ cofactor);
Holoenzyme is the union of the [cofactor and the enzyme] (the enzyme is called [apoenzyme/apoprotein] when NOT combined w/ cofactor);
58
Cofactors can be organic (called [......] e.g. vitamin) or inorganic (metal ions like Fe 2+ and Mg 2+).
Cofactors can be organic (called [coenzymes] e.g. vitamin) or inorganic (metal ions like Fe 2+ and Mg 2+).
59
If cofactor strongly covalent bonds to enzyme = [.....]
If cofactor strongly covalent bonds to enzyme = [prosthetic group]
60
Protein Classifications | simple ([.....])
Protein Classifications | simple ([entirely amino acids])
61
Protein Classifications | albumins + globulins (functional and act as [.......])
Protein Classifications | albumins + globulins (functional and act as [carriers or enzymes])
62
Protein Classifications | scleroproteins ([.....] e.g. collagen)
Protein Classifications | scleroproteins ([fibrous, structural] e.g. collagen)
63
Protein Classifications | conjugated ([.....])
Protein Classifications | conjugated ([simple protein + nonprotein])
64
Protein Classifications | lipoprotein ([......])
Protein Classifications | lipoprotein ([bound to lipid])
65
Protein Classifications | mucoprotein ([.....])
Protein Classifications | mucoprotein ([bound to carb])
66
Protein Classifications | chromoprotein (bound to [.....])
Protein Classifications | chromoprotein (bound to [pigmented molecule])
67
Protein Classifications | metalloprotein ([.....])
Protein Classifications | metalloprotein ([complexed around metal ion])
68
Protein Classifications | nucleoprotein ([......])
Protein Classifications | nucleoprotein ([contain histone or protamine, bound to nucleic acid])
69
Protein primary structure = [......]
Protein primary structure = [sequence of amino acids]
70
Protein secondary structure = 3d shape resulting from [.......] (e.g. alpha helix, beta sheet)
Protein secondary structure = 3d shape resulting from [hydrogen bonding between amino and carboxyl groups of adjacent amino acids] (e.g. alpha helix, beta sheet)
71
Protein tertiary structure = 3d structure due to [..........] (factors: H-bonds, ionic bonds, hydrophobic effect {R groups push away from water center}, disulfide bonds, van der waals)
Protein tertiary structure = 3d structure due to [noncovalent interactions between amino acid R groups (subunit interaction)] (factors: H-bonds, ionic bonds, hydrophobic effect {R groups push away from water center}, disulfide bonds, van der waals)
72
Protein quaternary structure = 3d shape of a protein that is a [.....]
Protein quaternary structure = 3d shape of a protein that is a [grouping of two or more separate peptide chains]
73
All proteins have a [......], and most have a secondary structure. Larger proteins can have a tertiary and quarternary structure.
All proteins have a [primary structure], and most have a secondary structure. Larger proteins can have a tertiary and quarternary structure.
74
Of proteins, there are two main broad categories: [.....] (somewhat water soluble, many fxns: enzymes, hormones, membrane pumps/channels/receptors, inter and intracellular storage and transport, osmotic regulation, immune response, etc.)
Of proteins, there are two main broad categories: [globular proteins] (somewhat water soluble, many fxns: enzymes, hormones, membrane pumps/channels/receptors, inter and intracellular storage and transport, osmotic regulation, immune response, etc.)
75
Of proteins, there are two main broad categories: [......] (not water soluble, made from long polymers, maintain + add strength to cellular and matrix structure)
Of proteins, there are two main broad categories: [fibrous/structural proteins] (not water soluble, made from long polymers, maintain + add strength to cellular and matrix structure)
76
Fibrous proteins are dominated by [......], globular proteins dominated by 3ary structure.
Fibrous proteins are dominated by [2ndary structure], globular proteins dominated by 3ary structure.
77
DNA is a polymer of [.....]
DNA is a polymer of [nucleotides]
78
DNA Nucleotide: nitrogen base, five carbon sugar [......], phosphate group
DNA Nucleotide: nitrogen base, five carbon sugar [deoxyribose], phosphate group
79
DNA Purines – [.......] (double ring)— [.....] H bonds (AT2, GC3)
DNA Purines – [adenine, guanine] (double ring)—[2] H bonds (AT2, GC3)
80
DNA Pyrimidines: [.......] (single ring) – [.....] H bonds (to remember: CUT the PYE)
DNA Pyrimidines: [thymine, cytosine] (single ring) – [3] H bonds (to remember: CUT the PYE)
81
A nucleoside is just the [.......]
A nucleoside is just the [sugar+base]
82
DNA structure | Two [......] strands of a double helix
DNA structure | Two [antiparallel] strands of a double helix
83
RNA is a polymer of nucleotides that contain [......], not deoxyribose
RNA is a polymer of nucleotides that contain [ribose], not deoxyribose
84
In RNA Thymine is replaced by [.....] (which pairs with adenine)
In RNA Thymine is replaced by [uracil] (which pairs with adenine)
85
RNA is usually [.....] stranded
RNA is usually [single] stranded
86
Cell doctrine/theory: | 1. All living organisms are composed of [.......]
Cell doctrine/theory: | 1. All living organisms are composed of [one or more cells.]
87
Cell doctrine/theory: | 2. The cell is the basic unit of [......] in all organisms.
Cell doctrine/theory: | 2. The cell is the basic unit of [structure, function, and organization] in all organisms.
88
Cell doctrine/theory: | 3. All cells come from [.....]
Cell doctrine/theory: | 3. All cells come from [preexisting, living cells.]
89
Cell doctrine/theory: | 4. Cells carry hereditary [.....]
Cell doctrine/theory: | 4. Cells carry hereditary [information]
90
RNA world hypothesis proposes that [......] were precursors to current life (based on deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), RNA and proteins).
RNA world hypothesis proposes that [self-replicating ribonucleic acid (RNA) molecules] were precursors to current life (based on deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), RNA and proteins).
91
RNA stores genetic information like DNA + catalyzes chemical reactions like an enzyme protein and may have played a major step in the evolution of [.....].
RNA stores genetic information like DNA + catalyzes chemical reactions like an enzyme protein and may have played a major step in the evolution of [cellular life].
92
RNA is unstable compared to DNA, so more likely to participate in chemical rxns (due to its extra [.....]).
RNA is unstable compared to DNA, so more likely to participate in chemical rxns (due to its extra [hydroxyl group]).
93
Central dogma of genetics: biological information cannot be transferred back from protein to either protein or nucleic acid; [.......]
Central dogma of genetics: biological information cannot be transferred back from protein to either protein or nucleic acid; [DNA -> RNA -> proteins]
94
Know basic microscopy (light microscopy is basic, phase-contrast doesn’t kill or stain tissue, electron miscoscopes (scanning and transmission) are high magnification and resolution [......]).
Know basic microscopy (light microscopy is basic, phase-contrast doesn’t kill or stain tissue, electron miscoscopes (scanning and transmission) are high magnification and resolution [but kills tissue]).
95
[......] microscopy used to observe chromosomes during mitosis.
[Fluorescence] microscopy used to observe chromosomes during mitosis.
96
Centrifugation (spins + seperates liquified cell. homogenates separate into [..........]: (most dense is nuclei layer, then mitochondria, then ribosomes)
Centrifugation (spins + seperates liquified cell. homogenates separate into [layers based on density]: (most dense is nuclei layer, then mitochondria, then ribosomes)
97
Catalysts lower [..........], accelerating the rate of the rxn
Catalysts lower [activation energy], accelerating the rate of the rxn
98
[.........] = catabolism + anabolism + energy transfer
[Metabolism] = catabolism + anabolism + energy transfer
99
Concentration of reactants and products determines [......] | Equilibrium: rate of forward and reverse rxns is the same = 0 net production
Concentration of reactants and products determines [which way a rxn will go] Equilibrium: rate of forward and reverse rxns is the same = 0 net production
100
Enzymes are [........] that act as catalysts
Enzymes are [globular proteins] that act as catalysts
101
Enzymes are substrate specific, unchanged during rxn, catalyzes in both forward and reverse directions, temperature and pH affect enzyme function, active site and induced fit is [.............]
Enzymes are substrate specific, unchanged during rxn, catalyzes in both forward and reverse directions, temperature and pH affect enzyme function, active site and induced fit is [how enzymes bind to their substrate]
102
Cofactors are nonprotein molecules that assist enzymes usually by [......] like electrons
Cofactors are nonprotein molecules that assist enzymes usually by [donating or accepting some component of a rxn] like electrons
103
Coenzyme are [......] , usually donate or accept electrons | Vitamins
Coenzyme are [organic cofactors] , usually donate or accept electrons (Vitamins)
104
Inorganic cofactors are usually [........] (Fe 2+ and Mg 2+)
Inorganic cofactors are usually [metal ions] (Fe 2+ and Mg 2+)
105
If a cofactor binds to an enzyme tightly/covalently, it is known as a [.........]
If a cofactor binds to an enzyme tightly/covalently, it is known as a [prosthetic group]
106
ATP – common source of activation energy. New ATP formed via [..........] (ADP + phosphate using energy from energy rich molecule like glucose). Note that ATP contains, but is not itself, potential energy.
ATP – common source of activation energy. New ATP formed via [phosphorylation] (ADP + phosphate using energy from energy rich molecule like glucose). Note that ATP contains, but is not itself, potential energy.
107
Allosteric enzymes – have both an [......]
Allosteric enzymes – have both an [active site for substrate binding and an allosteric site for binding of an allosteric effector (activator, inhibitor)]
108
Competitive inhibition – substance that mimics the substrate inhibits the enzyme by [......]. Can be overcome by [.............]. Km changed but Vmax is not
Competitive inhibition – substance that mimics the substrate inhibits the enzyme by [binding at the active site]. Can be overcome by [increasing substrate cxn]. Km changed but Vmax is not
109
Noncompetetive inhibition – substance inhibits enzyme by [..........], substrate still binds. Km unchanged but Vmax is not.
Noncompetetive inhibition – substance inhibits enzyme by [binding elsewhere than active site], substrate still binds. Km unchanged but Vmax is not.
110
Cooperativity – enzyme becomes more receptive to additional substrate molecules after [............] (e.g enzymes w/ multiple subunits that each have active site [quaternary structure])
Cooperativity – enzyme becomes more receptive to additional substrate molecules after [one substrate molecule attaches to an active site] (e.g enzymes w/ multiple subunits that each have active site [quaternary structure])
111
Atom is made up of neutrons, protons, and electrons. Molecules are groups of 2 or more atoms held together by chemical bonds. Chemical bonds are due to [......].
Atom is made up of neutrons, protons, and electrons. Molecules are groups of 2 or more atoms held together by chemical bonds. Chemical bonds are due to [electron interactions].
112
Electronegativity = ability of an atom to [...........]
Electronegativity = ability of an atom to [attract electrons]

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