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fertility Flashcards

1
Q

fertility meaning

A

Production of a live birth

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2
Q

Fecundity meaning

A

physiological capacity to conceive (reproductive potential)

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3
Q

Infertility meaning

A

Inability to produce a live birth

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4
Q

Parity meaning

A

number of children born alive to a woman e.g. first born = parity 1

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5
Q

Menarche meaning

A

onset of menstruation

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6
Q

Menopause meaning

A

end of menstruation

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7
Q

Mean Age of Childbearing (MAC) meaning

A

AVERAGE age a woman has a child

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8
Q

Peak Age of Childbearing (PAC) meaning

A

the MODAL age a woman will have a child

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9
Q

what are the 3 ‘maximum fertility’ assumptions

A

1) Assume female menarche to menopause as ages 15-49
2) Assume 9 months of pregnancy.
3) Assume 18 months of breast feeding
- means 1 child ever 2.2 years - theoretical maximum fertility rate is 16 children per woman - could get broken e.g. russian woman had 69

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10
Q

what is natural fertility

A
  • The level of reproduction that exists in the absence of deliberate fertility control
  • ‘Natural’ Fertility is much lower than ‘Maximum’ fertility
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11
Q

Most famous “High Fertility” Society

A

The Hutterites
- Lived in Agrarian communities in NE US and Canada
- Doubled population 6 times in 100 years
- In 1936, TFR was 11

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12
Q

what are fertility characteristics in the human species

A
  • We as a species have kept our fertility rates low to maximise care in our offspring
  • Social components of fertility are much greater than the biological components
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13
Q

whats the crude birth rate

A

Number of live births per 1000 population in a given year
births (Bt) / population (Pt) x 1000

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14
Q

why is Crude Birth Rate not good measurement

A
  • Some populations are not exposed to the risk of pregnancy (children, old people, men, etc.)
  • Variations in the age distribution will affect the CBR
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15
Q

what is the General feritility rate

A

Number of live births per 1000 women ages 15-49 in a given year
births (Bt) / women ages 15-49 x 1000

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16
Q

why is General feritility rate a better measurement than Crude Birth Rate

A
  • Relates births to the age-sex group at risk of giving births (Women aged 15-49)
  • More refined than CBR, but still a rather crude metric
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17
Q

what is the Child/Woman Ratio

A
  • Number of children under age 5 per 1000 women of childbearing age in a given year
  • Very similar to GFR but instead of births it uses the Child Population
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18
Q

what is Age Specific Fertility Rate (ASFR)

A

Number of births per year to women of a specific age group, sometimes written as 𝑛𝐹𝑥
e.g. ASFR 15-19 = births / women aged 15-19 x n (year interval - would be five for this example)

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19
Q

what are all of the ASFRs called. what can this be used for

A

Fertility Schedule
Can be used for:
- comparisons of fertility behavior across ages
- comparisons of fertility over time
- comparisons of fertility across countries/populations

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20
Q

whats the total fertility rate (TFR)

A
  • The average number of children that would be born to a woman in her reproductive lifetime
  • It is the sum of all of the Age-Specific Fertility Rates
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21
Q

whats the Best single measure of fertility and why

A

total fertility rate (TFR)
- independent of age structure of a population
- Easy to interperate and calculate
- good to compare fertility across populations

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22
Q

what is Gross Reproduction Rate (GRR)

A

The average number of daughters that would be born to a woman in her lifetime
- GRR is just like TFR, but it counts only daughters and directly measures “reproduction” – a woman reproducing herself in the next generation by having a daughter

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23
Q

what is Net Reproduction Rate (NRR)

A

The average number of daughters that would be born to a woman in her lifetime while taking into account her risk of dying
- takes into account the fact that some women will die before entering and completing their child-bearing years

24
Q

what does NRR and TFR have to be for Replacement Level Fertility

A

When NRR = 1.0 - Surviving women have exactly enough daughters to replace themselves in the population

When TFR = 2.1 - Survivors have exactly enough people to replace themselves in the population
**Remember, TFR does not include mortality adjustments
**Replacement Level Fertility does not imply: CBR= CDRPopulation growth rate = 0

25
what does Fertility Behaviors focus on
women - If a woman never has intercourse, she will never have a baby - A man will never have a baby, no matter what he does
26
what does fertility vary in
space and time To understand why, 2 questions must be asked  How do people control fertility?  Why do people want to control fertility?
27
how was what fertility varied in understood
John Bongaarts in 1978 - identified 11 factors (how’s) through which any social factor (why’s) must operate
28
3 phases of fertility
1) Intercourse 2) Conception 3) Gestation
29
3 main factors within the Proximate Determinants of Fertility that John Bongaarts identified
I. Factors affecting exposure to intercourse II. Factors affecting exposure to conception III. Factors affecting successful births
30
explain the Factors affecting exposure to intercourse
Formation of unions: 1.Age of entry into intercourse 2. Permanent celibacy 3. Reproductive period spent between unions Exposure to intercourse within unions: 4. Voluntary abstinence 5. Involuntary abstinence 6. Coital frequency
31
explain the Factors affecting exposure to conception
7.Involuntary fecundity or infecundity  Breast-feeding, etc. 8. Use or nonuse of contraception. 9.Voluntary fecundity or infecundity.  Medical treatment, vasectomy, etc
32
explain Factors affecting successful births
10. Involuntary fetal mortality (miscarriage) 11.Voluntary fetal mortality (abortion)
33
what are the 4 Main Determinants
1) Age at marriage 2) Use / Non-use of Contraceptives 3) Incidence of abortion 4) Involuntary infecundity
34
6 intercourse variables
1. Age of entry into intercourse 2. Permanent celibacy 3. Reproductive period spent between unions 4.Voluntary abstinence 5. Involuntary abstinence 6. Coital frequency
35
explain the 'Age of entry into intercourse' intercourse variable
Permanent virginity is rate, but the longer one maintains it the lower their fertility will be - Higher fertility results with younger childbearing ages
36
explain the "Permanent celibacy" intercourse variable
- Those women who never marry - Highest permanent celibacy ever = Ireland in 1971, 18% of women aged 40-44 had never married - Never married =/= childless
37
explain the 'Reproductive period spent between unions' intercourse variable
- Married people have more ‘viable’ sex than unmarried people - Women who have been divorced have lower fertility than women who are married but have never divorced - Couples in ‘long distance’ relationships have lower fertility
38
explain the 'Voluntary abstinence' intercourse variables
- Not very popular - Uncommon, except after the birth of a child (post-partem) - Post-Partem sex is taboo in some places for up to two years - 37 year old woman with 5 kids doesn’t want any more. Husband says no contraceptives. Woman says no more sex
39
explain the 'Involuntary abstinence' intercourse variables
- Not very common and not very popular - Jobs: Transportation, truck drivers, separate vacations - Medical: hospitalization, disease, etc. - Migration: labor separation
40
explain the 'Coital frequency' intercourse variables
- More sex = more pregnancy  3 times per week=51% pregnant in 6 months  1 time per week=32% pregnant in 6 months - Marriage, Age, and Sex ◦ 1950: Married Women aged 21-25 twice as much sex as women aged 41-45 ◦ 2002: Married Women aged 21-25 have equal sex as women aged 41-45.  Why?
41
2 conception variables
7. Breast Feeding 8. Contraception 9. Voluntary Infecundity 10. gestation variables 11. Abortion
42
explain the 'breast feeding' conception variables
- Breast Feeding prolongs post-partem amenorrhea and suppresses ovulation ◦ 2 months for women who don’t breast feed ◦ 10-18 months for women who do - Modernization reduces breast feeding - Yet breast feeding declines as fertility declines
43
explain the 'contraception' conception variables
- Physical Methods e.g. Diaphragm, Female Condom, IUD - Chemical Method e.g. The Pill, implants, Injections - Breast Feeding - Condoms - Withdrawl - Rhythm Method ◦ If an average couple were to spend a year doing nothing but relying upon chance to not get pregnant, there is an 85% chance they’d get pregnant
44
explain the 'Voluntary Infecundity' conception variables
Females ◦ Tubal Ligation (getting your tubes tied) ◦ Hysterectomy Males ◦ Vasectomy ◦ Castration
45
3 gestation variables
Miscarriage Abortion RU-486 (day after pill)
46
explain the 'abortion' gestation variables
- Single most often used form of birth control in the world today - big reason why fertility is low in many parts of the World including US, Canada, Europe, and China. - Abortion rates increased in the US from 1973-1990, but has dropped since
47
what is the PERCEPTION of how more kids help
- Human lottery tickets (hey, one of them may get rich) - Help with the Crops, house work, etc. - Migrate elsewhere and send money home
48
what is the REALITY of how more kids help
- Parents usually die before kids can contribute - In pre-modern societies, quantity was more important than quality of children - Weak link between fertility and perceived need for old-age security
49
what 3 things drive fertility outcomes
1) DTT 2) Ideational or Functionalist Theories 3) Economic Theories
50
explain DTT as a factor that drives fertility outcomes
- Fertility will decline because you don’t need as many kids to survive (mortality driving fertility) - High fertility is incompatible with an industrial economy (economic development drives fertility)
51
explain Ideational or Functionalist Theories as a factor that drives fertility outcomes
- Ideas about ideal family size - All people want to control family size, they just don’t know how - Different social organization leads to different fertility <- differences attributed to proximate determinants
52
explain Economic Theories as a factor that drives fertility outcomes
- Home Economics  Cost of children  Couple’s Income  Preferences for child vs. consumption  Preferences for quantity vs. quality  “Pigouvian Tax” - Gary Becker
53
explain the fertility history of India
- India gains independence in 1947 - TFR ~ 6.0 - 1952: First national population policy to reduce TFR by providing family planning services → total failure  Lack of contraception, strong tradition of large families, difficult implementation due to overwhelmingly rural population - 1956: 2nd national population policy - focused on increasing access to family planning - fertility fell from ~ 6.0 to ~5.7 - Patriarchal family structure, strong son preference, young age at marriage, caste differences for access, and conservative beuraucracy
54
explain India fertility policies
- 1975: “The Emergency” - India’s population nearly doubled since Independence - Indian Health Minister coins the phrase “Development is the best contraceptive” in 1974 - Aggressive anti-poverty programs implemented e.g. education opportunities, capped lending rates - Fertility has continued to decline – without coercive population policies - “Westernization” continues - Embraced Development as the means for reducing fertility - TFR falls from 6.0 in 1947 to 2.5 in 2012
55
explain China fertility policies
- Mao gains power in 1949 - Immediately encouraged fertility control ◦ Slogan “Later, longer, fewer.” ◦ All family planning methods were made available - TFR=5.5 in 1953 and fell to 2.9 in 1978 - Yet, 1978 is the implementation of the One Child Policy - If fertility was falling, why this policy? - probs not needed - Without policy, fertility would have probably continued to fall - 1953-1978 fertility fell while access to family planning was voluntary – but seen as only allowed one child, may aswell make most of it, right? - Sex Ratio at birth is skewed :( - Son preference and SRB
56
explain the sex ratio at birth
Sex Ratio at Birth = 105 for normal countries  Above 105 = more baby boys  Below 105 = more baby girls  110 = high  115= really high  120= really really high
57
what is Son preference and SRB
- Sex-selective abortion becomes very common in countries with a strong son preference - Too many boys, not enough girls - Son preference usually leads to higher fertility, in the absence of family planning

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