FINAL 1 Flashcards
(123 cards)
1
Q
Depict the Iroquois peoples of the North East
A
-A family of similar languages - composed of many nations -All were historically semi-sedentary villagers with maize-based agric -Gradual adoption of maize 1000-1200 AD: pop. growth, villages form -In the midst of Algonquian hunting peoples of S. Ont, S. Que, NY -16th C coalescence into large, palisaded villages - distinct nations -Late 16th C: conflict, migration, formation of powerful confederacies: Wendat, Haudenosaunaee, Neutral -From harmony to rising conflicts -Pattern : one side of Ont. lake (moving closer together for agriculture and defence purpose) vs the other side -a lot of movement in the 16thC (physical and communal) - fluidity and coming together as defined group
2
Q
Depict 19thCentury: Settler Nations / Territorial States
A
•Independent settler states: USA (1776), Mexico (1821), Canada
(gradual - imposition of britain authority) – assert exclusive and uniform territorial sovereignty (expansion to Westaward= an attempt to eliminate to colonize and occupy territory in Cali and Oregon, process of establshing (farm land for eg)
-Emobiment of desire to eliminate territorial ambiguity, treaties and confinement of natices to reserves
•19thC conquest of western N. America through violence, treaties and confinement of Natives to reservations/reserves
-Treatees involve = the debate between oral and written, the nomatic having to choose between location but then dispute, giving up territory in exchange of payment and reserve
- Reservations/Reserves: spaces of exception; collective property
- Shrinking reserves; broken promises
- Reservation/Reserve as both prison and indigenous homeland
- The “Indian Problem” - Proposals to privatize reserves and assimilate Natives (reserves seen as provisory thing until an homogenous nation is formed , eg: notably the voluntary assimilation standards - in canadan and us (daw’s act)
-Desire to privatize and assimilate reserves
3
Q
A
4
Q
Depict Fur Trade and Gold Rushes on the Pacific Coast
A
- Maritime fur trade, 1780s-1820s, brings wealth to NW Coast (seal pelt is in demand in China and this trade is also sometimes accompanied by violence)
- Canadian overland fur traders: Northwest Co, HBC (but territory remains indigenous)
- California gold rush, 1848-49: massive influx ofadventurers, they see indigenous prescence as a nuisance which leads to a lot of violence
- Militias, US army attack indigenous : large and small massacres
- “Apprenticeship” and other forms of slavery and servitude
- “Protecting the settlers” but actually massacare of the natives
- Population of indignous decimated after colonization
- Slavery in Cali on the surface to “protect” indigenous but actually apprenticesship = parents murdered and children enrolled in settler familites
•Fraser Riv gold rush, 1858: destruction of Halkomelem homeland (settler has a really bad effect on nations, settlers looking for gold in the middle of indigenous fishery + when resistance = violence
+envrionemental consequences distrupt landscape and destroying ecology of salmond which they relied on for food + mining then railway
5
Q
Depict the destruction of Pequots
A
-Dutch-English rivalry for trade and territory on Connecticut Riv.
- Fur trade and coastal wampum industry –dominated by Pequots
- Mass. and Conn. join with Narragansetts in war on Pequots
- Massacre of Pequots on Mystic Riv., 16 (coming primary from english but justified by biblical
6
Q
Depict the Spanish Conquest and Colonization
A
-Northern frontiers of New Spain, conqueres looking for gold, silver and people
•1598: Oñate expedition: soldiers, settlers, Franciscan missionaries. Siege of Acoma (eventually they capture slaves which feet are cut and acoma surrenders)
-Spanish are “welcomed”/not rejected; they come baring gifts, they also appear dangerous so the possible benefit and intimidation lead to welcoming responses but then Spanish become Coercive (stealing food etc)
- 1610: Santa Fe established as colonial stronghold
- Pueblos convert to Christianity (focus on repressing pueblo sexuality) ; Franciscans dominate community life
- encomienda: labour service (purely exploitative in practice)
- Sp enslavement of Apaches etc: regular slave trade (captured and sold, the indigenous also take part in it but only kind of)
-Most of Pueblos remain indigenous but havea church and no indigneous spirituality to be found- Franscicans humiliate parents in front on their children
7
Q
Depict the European Presence in therms of the Iroquois
A
- French, English and Dutch settle nearby, but Haudenosaunee and neighbours unconquered
- Europeans arrive for fishing at first- not interested in colonizing but still contact with indigenous- relationship varry but mostly COMMERCIAL - beginning of trade.
- French colonizing: Innue welcoming for economic purpose, Innu hoping for support in conflict. Wendat form alliance with French. Pattern : colonizers included in ecisting power configuration of indigenous power at first.
- Innu and Mikmaq are the only ones to have first contact with Eur.
- Fur trade; depletion of beaver resources; firearms from Dutch (they are advantaged to the 5 nations because they were close to dutch)
- Fur trade mainly with Dutch at Ft. Orange (Albany, NY)
- Smallpox, 1634, 1661-63; depopulation, destabilization (cuts population in half) - war becomes more prevalant.
- Haudenosaunee at the centre of a northern “shatterzone” of violent conflict connected to colonial presence
8
Q
What is Ayllu
A
Ayllu: community united in kinship; also an economic unit (sense of unity by bonds, collection of territory connected by human holders)
9
Q
What is Cuzco
A
Cuzco: capital city; not as impressive as Aztecs, residence of the Inca, a religious centre surrounded by sacred landscape, the centre of the world, “navel of the universe”, scare centre
10
Q
•Long before 1492, the majority of Native Americas population subsists by __________ , regardless of the _______ stereotype
A
-agriculture -hunter gatherer
11
Q
Define Polytheistic
A
-Oral Tradition -Interpenetration of the human, the animal and unseen forces -Particularistic stories -More complex views- praying for figures even if “unfriendly”- morality is more complicated
12
Q
Depict the Mi’kmaq
A
-importance of the sea shore: shell fish, water fowl, seals -Interior moose, caribou hunt in fall/winter -Alliance with nations to the west: Wabanaki Confederacy
13
Q
Depict the rise/origin of Maize in central Mexico
A
-Lake district of central valley of Mexico: rich natural environment -Wild teosinte to domesticated maize (corn) ca. 7000 YBP -Maize is exceptionally productive and nutritious -Genetic mutability: favors selective breeding for new strains
14
Q
Depict general details on Northern Hunter-Gathering Peoples
A
-Canadian Shield environment: rivers, lakes, rocks, spruce forest - water is very present on land -Seasonally available foods –> seasonal migrations (frozen in winter so no agric) , land can support people if in small number and mobile -Hunter-gatherers in small, mobile bands: “nomads” (but not random wandering, its a mode of survival) -Loose and flexible organization: affiliation through kinship -Confusing ethnonyms: Mi’kmaq, Innu .. hard to ascertain -Innu: northeastern Quebec, Labrador (aka Montagnais, Naskapi) -Mi’kmaq: Nova Scotia, Gaspé, parts of Nfld -Algonquin: northwestern Quebec -Anishinaabe: Ontario•Ethnic identities and territories can be difficult to delineate
15
Q
what is the tripe alliance
A
Tenochtitlán, Texcoco, Tlacopan - Aztecs take over eventually because more powerful than 2 others
16
Q
Depict the Horticulturalists and Hunters of the Great Plains
A
Natural grasslands; moist in the east, drier and higherin the west
- The bison (buffalo) as dominant mammal: 30,000,000head?
- Semi-sedentary villagers of the Mississippi & Missouri (edge of where corn can survive) subsantial size village
-Seen as the richest peoples and view the hunters as poor
–Eg. Osage, Pawnee, Mandan
•Nomadic hunting peoples: Pedestrian buffalo hunt (very difficult) (bison provide everything they need; meat, fuel, clothing, housing)
*Horses create a shift from wanting to be agric to hunting*
–Eg. Siksika (Blackfoot), Shoshone, Kio
17
Q
What is acoma
A
Acoma pueblo = oldest city on North-America ?
18
Q
Depict Tunuiit (Dorset Culture)
A
-Migration from Siberia approx 2000BC (later than all other peoples)
- Tailored clothing; bow and arrow; spear;harpoon
- Shore-based fishing, hunting of sea mammals
- Dug-out houses covered in whale bone andearth
- Few dogs, few boat
-Tunuiit famous for ivory art
19
Q
Describe the Spanish colonization of Hispaniola
A
1492 – Columbus forms positive impression of Tainos, Tainos offered them as they arrived, overall friendly approach. The Spanish first report is positive, they see the “Indians” as lovely people, generous, “good servants”, traded with us. Very good and hospitable relation 1493 – Settlement on N. coast of Hispaniola (first accidentally encounters defensive caribs)- Tainos help the Europeans at first but then they get tired of it- they have limits obviously while Spanish think they shouldn’t. 1494 – Cibao goldfields; natives forced to pan for gold. When they resist, they face violent response from the Spanish (x1000 more intense) , they massacre villages which arms, dogs, torture. Meanwhile the Tainos food supply drop, sickness and epidemics spread , exploitation leads to exhaustion. Relations deteriorate: violence, plunder, torture, rape Encomienda – institutionalizing exploitation
20
Q
Explain the mobile hunter-gatherers across the Americas theories
A
-Until 10 000 YBP, long distance migrations pursuing game - which explains the distribution of Clovis points -Then extinction of large mammals -In warmer South-America, more reliance of plant foods -As post-glacial waterways stabilize: societies settle -Mammoth extinct 10 000 YBP (not from over-hunt but from climate change) -Landscape also changing as ice age ends -Hunting continues but smaller mammal -Lakes and river stabilize (people find a place for a living, nomadic hunter settling seasonally, short movement, seasonal villages -weapons: spear, atlatl, wildfowl decoys and nets -bows & arrows, canoes arrived much later
21
Q
Depict Life under the Spanish rule based on Guaman Poma de Ayala account
A
-Indian can take a Spaniard to court but need for 6 Indians for 1 Spanish voice -Subjugated race = can’t ride horses, can’t hold swords, can’t go to university -Suffering from oppression: trying to capture that In the letters -African Slaves as supervisors in labor, whipping the indigenous -“Paga”- people with power extracting bribes -The Indians suffering, dying in mines -Priest even behave against Indians -Spaniards feeling inspired to boss around any Indian -The letter has a lot about the church (playing a very important role as institution) -The indigenous are the ones building and decorating churches -Guaman Poma is very critical of priests: he likes the ida of religion but finds the application to be flawed. He wants the priest punished by inquisition. He depicts them as arrogant, severe, forgot our lord, social connections only with spaniards, beating children (corporal punishment in common in Europe but not for Incas) , they abuse of the confession structure, priest using labor and exploitation, priest behaving like Inca (many wives + a lot of children)
22
Q
Depict the Pueblo Peoples of the Rio Grande
A
Hopi, Zuni, Acoma, Taos, etc. Separate nations;similar culture
- Sedentary villagers; maize cultivation; issue of water (fear of drought, wells, irrigation)
- 134 towns in late 16thC. Adobe brick construction
- Kiva: underground chamber at centre of village
- Katchina cult : not exactly gods but personification of spiritual forces (one for hunting for eg) , embodied by dancers and little wodden carbings/dolls (educational and recreational purposes)-
- Athapaskan neighbours (Dine peoples, related to the ones in Canada which they were seperated from) : proto-Navajo and –Apache hunter-gatherer-
intreaction between pueblos and Athapaskan neighbours : trade of fresh meat, violent raids
23
Q
Depict the fall of tenochitlan
A
-The Spanish arrives ->The March from the Coast: Tlaxcallan Alliance (after battle, the Spanish realize they should link with them as they are both enemies of the Aztecs, they source most of their army from them), Massacre at Cholula (slaughter everyone, soldiers lashed out) -Tenochtitlán Occupied: Moctezuma captured, Massacre at festiva l -Aztecs expel Spanish/Tlaxcallan occupiers (June-July 1520) -Sp/Tlaxcallan/Texcoco army besieges, destroys Tenochtitlan (Spanish gather a large army of indigenous)
24
Q
Depict European Notions of Distant Peoples
A
-Distance peoples = Africa, Asia, Americas -Folklore: wild men and monsters of the mountains and forests (expectation of hairy monster) -Classical tradition: concept of the “barbarian”- people who don’t speak greek- as antithesis of Greek ideals of civility -Ancient Christian concept of “pagan” – those who are too ignorant and depraved to worship God properly (those who resist christianity) -Emergent figure of the “savage” blending elements of barbarian and pagan -Category of “savage” recognizes the humanity of the Other in reduced, degraded form
25
Depict Aztec Religion
•Sense of vulnerability to cosmic cataclysm •Reading the signs of unseen powers, forces controlling human faith which don't care about people- which explains the need for big ceremony to get their "attention" •Human life – maize – water – human blood (ceremony of blood dropping for rain and maize) •Huitzilopochtli: Aztec tribal god; associated with war & the sun •Quetzalcoatl: god assoc with wisdom, crafts, culture •Tlaloc: rain god •Importance of shedding blood and of human sacrifice
26
Explain the migration of maize
-Diffusion south and north from Mesoamerica (enters fully eventually) -Arid US Southwest, ca. 3000 YBP -Southeast and Mississippi Riv system, ca. 200 AD (Mississippi allows diffusion where there is already people, soil and climate) -New varieties to adapt to new climate zones (eg. Northern Flint, allows maize to move up) -Ont, Que and US Northeast 500 – 1000 AD (very challenging for maize in QC at first , its matter of reliability but fluctuation in climate made it possible) -Transforms society, population, power
27
Depict the Innu of the Lower Saint-Lawrence
-Aug/Sept gathering on St Lawrence eel fishing site -Smoked eel for winter provisions -Fishing is labor intensive and lead to massive food supply -Ducks, geese, berries, salmon -Summer = happy time, mating, lots to eat -Winter hunting in the interior: moose, beaver, caribou, etc. People separate, going off in smaller groups. going different directions inland. -Religion: feasts, shamanism, “shaking tent ceremony -Houses: light material because needs to be moved -Clothing/footwear out of animal product
28
Depict the Algonquians of the Great Lakes
Mobile hunting-gathering peoples
* Game, fish, berries; wild rice in shallow lakes
* Fluid, kin-based bands. Bilineal clans (“doodem”) (so very hard to trace/identify lineage a lot of movement)
* Most (not all) currently identify as Anishinaabe
* French attempt to identify “nations” and territories, for
example:
–Ottawa/Outaouais – people who come via Ottawa Riv to trade
–Saulteurs/Saulteaux – gather in summer at Sault Ste Marie
•Other ethnonyms: Miami, Potawatomi, Menominee, Illinois
Illinois = federation of different group ath the edge of great lakes/prairires, sucess from bisson hunt
29
Depict the theory of Cultural Evolution
-J-F. Lafitau (Jesuit), Customs of the American Indians (1724). Native culture as a stage similar to ancient Europe -Not race, its a matter of history -Difference inscribed in time -Polarity of “primitive” and “advanced -Propels "equality" - everyone is equal, but some haven't reached the "peak" stage yet
30
What is the legend of the Hiawatha and Dekanawida
Dekanawida (person more than human) who travels on stone canoe to come meet the haudenosanee in a time when peace wasn't present, Hiawatha Onondaga is an important person in grief of his many daughters- killed by enemy magic's. He wonders away and goes to a lake full of ducks, the ducks take away the water so he picks up shells. That evening he weaves with the shells, not knowing why. Dekanawida is in a village to which Hiawatcha comes to- D meets H- D makes more shell string for H- gives him more as a gift/consolation, H is healed- they form a unity, going together village to village- healing grief, they create peace as an active entity, which forms the 5 nations.
31
What is the Haida creation story
-The raven saw human beings stuck inside a clam shell
32
Depict Haudenosaunee/Iroquois: People of the Longhouse
-Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, Seneca -Semi-sedentary villagers; culture similar to Wendat -The Legend of Hiawatha and Dekanawida -League of the Five Nations/Iroquois Confederacy -A loose alliance in the 16th C. that becomes more tightly knit in the 17th C -Haudenasaunee = "they build a long house"- name of confederacy of 5 nations
33
Depict the protest of Guaman Poma de Ayala
- a native interpreter and traveler commenting on life before and after the conquest of the Andes -Guaman Poma de Ayala: he was a small child when conquest , he came from nobility, during conquest parents killed , he becomes a translator for a living, he converts to Christianity , from his perspective he sees something is not right, when he is an old man, he denies to write letters to the king (which he deems to be a good man simply not aware of the real condition) so he describes the situation. He gets carried away and seeds 1001 pages to the king (who most likely did not read it) -In its letters: he paints an Adam and Eve setting in Peru, taking on board Christianity but through culture
34
Explain the pre-clovis sites theory
-Pushing back the date of arrival (every advance seems to show early date of arrival) -Sites such as Monte Verde, Chile; a village site 15000 YBP, possibly older -Bluefish caves, Yukon; latest analysis of bones suggests human habitation (horse jaw bone with cut makes 24 000 YBP) -Increasing evidence of movement down pacific coast
35
Depict the figure of the cannibal
-“Cannibal” as a specific, exaggerated, version of the savage -Columbus and the Caribs: Native enemies as “cannibals” -Eur obsession with eating of human flesh: a sin associated with filth, violence, sexual depravity -Entire peoples dehumanized -Justification for conquest and enslavement -In Eur imagination: associated with disorder, sexual disorder, women
36
Depict the noble savage
-Savage as innocent: victim of Eur cruelty -Critical stream , Eur= bad christian -Bartolomé de las Casas: Spanish “wolves,” Native “lambs”- revolted conquistador, advocate for humanity, monk (believes in conversion) -Savage as embodiment of generosity, frankness, fortitude, freedom -Savage as genuine, close to nature (no room for modernity or agency) -Modern anti-modernism: the “Indian” as figure from a pristine past -Positive but victime role needing protector, patronizing depiction as passive victimes
37
Depict Early encounters in terms of ideologies of race and savagery
-Tactical issue for Natives and Eurs: “Are these humans?” (first question of the encounter) -Nahuatl texts: Sp. as “gods,” as “pigs” – short-lived uncertainty (delusion did not last very long and they realized they were dealing with fellow humans) -Cortés: Nahua as “barbarians” – but not “primitive” or “coloured” (sees himself as better but in assumed ways) -Elsewhere, indigenous taken by surprise, but soon see Eur as human, separately created (product of their countries, humanity created differently in varying spaces) + short lived conception of them having "spiritual power" because of objects -Christian theologians debate polygenesis (maybe people were created at different times) vs monogenesis (because of never heard of gods)
38
Depict the civilization of the Andes
-High mountain environment; deserts to the west, tropical lowlands to the east (micro-climates) -Polity that took shape "recently" before Spanish came -Terraced fields -Agriculture + raising of animals (which promotes agriculture because herds are pooping together) -Potatoes, as well as cotton, maize and other food crops -Domesticated camelids: alpaca (better wool than llama), llama -Textiles: camelid wool and cotton; "backstrap loom" -Many cultures and languages ( no Inca culture, rather Inca "empire") -Incas speak Quecuha languages (effort to impose Quechua on "colonized" groups leading to bilingualism
39
Depict the emergence of state societies in Mesoamerica
-Sedentary villages (due to maize) to chiefdoms(venerated individuals, ambitious building, projects): eg. Olmecs, 1200-400 BC- eg: Very large Olmecs heads as cooperative efforts -Cities and state societies, 400 BC – 200 AD: eg. Monte Alban (Oaxaca), Zapotec state \*citites are bigger and different from villages, cities don't cultivate, they depend for food on villages which they "dominate" -“Classic” Maya civilization, 200-900 AD (birth to a lot of city/sate then decline mostly villages) -Teotihuacan, ca 200-700 AD- BIG city, trading, commercial network, then burnt down and destroyed) -Toltec Empire (capital Tula), 950-1150 AD (ancient venerated by Aztecs, wisdom, art, disappeared )
40
Depict the Wendat way of Life
-Agriculture !!!! -Longhouse, village, fields. Relocating approx. every 20yrs (crop rotation, building deteriorate, lack of fire wood) -Women grow, store and cook food – a duty and source of power -Women at centre of family, clan, longhouse -Men: hunting, politics, war, trade -Men role is in the outside world - they go on long trip for trade or war. Great Prestige for men to go on trips. War= taking prisoners (men are tortured, women prisoner are adopted) -Ethic of tolerance and generosity -War is understood as the duty of one's kin -The problem of dealing with conflict and violence; blood vengeance: “covering the dead" -If someone kills someone, relatives of the victims must kill him, then the relatives of the dead must kill them and so on which can spiral - so "gifts" are accepted to stop the blood vengeance - hence the ceremony of covering the dead (no basis of punishment like the Europeans)
41
Depict Horse Cultures
18thC spread of horses, equestrian lifeways
* Huge improvement in buffalo hunt; supports increased population
* Movement of peoples onto the plains (transformation in lifestyle from canoe to horse)
–Cree, Assiniboines, Lakota (Sioux) from northeast
–Commanches from mountain west
–Many agric villagers become equestrian nomads (eg. Crow)
•Increased emphasis on war; competition for horses,pasture, captive
-Lakotas success = extracting food supplies from weaker agric. peoples
42
Depict Innu technologies of mobility
-Birch-bark canoe – invented ca. 3000 YBP – light, maneuverable -snowshoes, toboggans -Women’s crafts: tanning, tailoring, moose hair embroidery, quillwork, birch-bark container
43
Depict the city of Tenochtitlán
•An island city: canals, houses, marketplaces, temples, palaces •Two cities in one: Tenochtitlán and Tlatelolco (Both Mexicas but separate, Tlatelolco will be dominated eventually) •Complex urban class society: Nobles, priests, commoners (farmers and artisans), slaves (not a slaved based society, not enemy, only people convicted or paying debt) •Calpolli: neighbourhood/precinct and extended kin unit •Tribute: payments to nobles or temples (for eg: commoner might owe tribute to temple's land) : token of subjection and a version of tax, if paying=inferior •Tlatoani (sacred “speaker”): Moctezuma II, 1500-1519. Spanish called him king/emperor but not accurate, he is more than human embodiment of spiritual force, political power is unclear, perhaps there was a council behind him - he can't be look in the eyes
44
Depict NorthWest Coast Cultures
- Main food resource: fish, esp. salmon caught on river spawning
- Mountain forest and sea = veryi important, fish is central +Seals and whales for meat and oil
* Villages composed of large timber houses (thanks to red cedar)
* Social hierarchy: nobles, commoners, slaves(war captives)
* Competition for wealth and prestige by war,diplomacy and gifting
-Hierarchical society - more than other nations, status inherited, lots of wealth in envrionement which is at the base of prestige (one way of flaunting wealth is to give it away, eg:feast)
45
Depict South-America roots and tubers agriculture
\*Maize is present but not a staple -Beans and quinoa cultivated on the Pacific Coast, 7000 YBP - Guinea pigs, llamas, muscovy ducks domesticated in Peru -Potatoes in Peru from 5000 YBP (staple crops, many variety) -Cassava (aka manioc, yuca) grows in tropical settings: Brazil (10,000 YBP) and Caribbean. Bountiful in starch, but beware cyanide. Cassava more productive than maize (or anything else really) -Maize spreads across S. Amer, but it rarely serves as food staple: instead used for corn beer and popcorn
46
Depict the colonist: puritans and others (Algonquian, Southern New England)
-New Netherlands: Dutch on Hudson and Connecticut Rivers
* Mayflower Pilgrims found Plymouth, 1621; robbing food caches (he comes in mostly depopulated areas, impulses of indigneous to include them, peace trials regardless of violent history
* “Great Migration” to Mass Bay, 1630-43
-Puritans= good willed people, aware of the past, they want to be good colonizers
* Settler colonialism: appropriation of indigenous lands
* Sachems negotiate agreements of alliance, territorial accommodation
\*territory "buying" is not present as it doesnt make sense in indigenous culture. So the english think they are buying land but they're not.
-The possibilty of cohabitation but it gets perverted
47
Depict the old world pathogens colonizing the new-world
-Smallpox hits Tainos 1518; Aztecs 1520; Incas 1527 -Unidentified illnesses, probably measles, influenza, also devastate -Epidemics spread with colonizers: Wendat/Iroquois in 1630s; New England Algonquians, 1610-20.... \*seen as a product of God's cleaning the land before arrival of colonizers\* -Took a few years for epidemic to invade- when women and children arrive usually -Uneven spread and timing -Sometimes in advance of European penetration: eg. smallpox pandemic of 1775-82•Death, cultural disruption, despondency, war (fallen upon because weaker when sick) -Leads to collective trauma \*some diseases are vaguely defined
48
Depict the conquest and colonization of American plains
-Invasions of US settler state, 1850s-60s – led by army
* Invasions of Canadian settler state, 1870s-80s (enters later than US, – led by NWMP, wanted to show order)
* Destruction of the buffalo (happened because of horses, competition, railways and non-indegenous hunters (because of industrialization ), settlers sett,e in places like kansas and with their fences, shut out bisons)
- The peoples who were strong and healthy = end up straving, in conflict, diseased
- Sudden inability to defend themselves from settlers pushed into reserved (canadian benefits from that US impact)
•Starvation, disease: confinement to reservations/reserve
49
Explain the Florentine Codex
-a multi-volume book compiled under direction of Sp. Franciscan, Bernardino de Sahagun, starting in 1547 -Sp trained Nahua scholars interview elders, record their testimony in both Nahuatl and Spanish -Volume 12 recounts the conquest -Recorders and informants have been affected by years of Sp rule and by Christianity. This is not “pure” indigenous testimony -Texts reflect local and ethnic biases: Tlaxcallan views and Tlatleloco testimony hostile to Tenochtitlán and to Moctezuma -Moctezuma portrayed as weak leader – is this scapegoating ? from the people who were not pleased with Moctezuma ?
50
Depict the Pueblo Revolt
-1680
Pueblos suffer from drought, depopulation,Navajo & Apaches attacks
* Popé secretly coordinates anti-Sp, anti-Christian movement (which are the ones leading the revolt)
* Coordinated – and successful – uprising, Aug 1680
-Runners with knots, then issue: the secret goes out so the date is moved and the uprising happens
Goal of revolt = Christianity is the initial target, priests are killed, churches destroyed, people wash christinianity away is rivers
- Spanish all go to Santa-Fe which is then sieged + pueblos and nomads (Dine, Navaho) create links +Pueblo steal horses and give them to nomads
- They maintain their independence, big blow to spanish imperialism
•Reconquest 1692-96; renewed colonial regime minus encomienda and severe Church discipline ( secret of success = promised of improced regime which is appealing since the relation were already deteriorating in New-Mexico)
51
Depict Art and Craft on the Northwest Coast
* Cedar dugout canoes for rivers and high seas
* Woodworking: cedar boxes (bent wood + decorating); alder bowls; ceremonial masks
-Ship design = 50 years ahead of Europeands
* Blankets of mountain goat wool, dog hair,cedar and nettle fibre
* House pole and totem pole carvin
-Effect of Europeans on art = benefit ? it florished even more because of new tools
52
Depict the Algonquians of Southern New England
-Varied landscape of forests, rivers, ponds, swamps, coasts,islands (so varried actitvities)
•Semi-sedentary villagers with high degree of mobility
-Seasonal movement (no pure agric, importance of hunting and fishing)
* Maize adopted after 1350: only fully a staple crop in river valleys; fish and shellfish more important on the coast
* Importance of hunting and fishing; much seasonal movement
* Wigwam: small, light shelter
* Sachem: revered leaders; collects and redistributes tribute
-Not so hierarhcy based but war leaders
•External relations: tribute-based alliance or rivalry/wa
53
Define Monotheistic
-Authoritative text -Hierarchy (god,humanity,nature) -Universal Claims -Dichotomies of divine/diabolical, good/evil -"Only pray to God"
54
Depict Aztec war practices
-Highly militarized society -Culture of warfare : -common soldiers and noble warriors: difference in weapons (common = long distance weapon, noble=single man to man) -Tactics : emphasis on individual courage and initiative -Object: overwhelm enemy , take live prisoners (which determines prestige), some weapons are designed to wound , then take live prisoner and use them for sacrifice -Victory as metaphysical verdict -High status of the warrior - outfits very important, combats between best soldiers, war determined by metaphysical sources
55
What is the meso-american landscape
-mountains, valleys, lowlands -hot, dry, vulnerable to drought•Domestication of maize, ca. 7000 YBP -Other domesticates: beans, squash, tomatoes, chiles, avocado, cacao (chocolate)... -Processing maize: tortillas -Pottery, stone tools, obsidian blades (highly developed crafts and art)
56
Describe Sedentarism without Agriculture
-Homebase, not 12 months/year -Fishing-based villages: BC coast, Pacific coast of S. America -Villages sustained by rich interior wetlands: Amazonia, Mississippi region (acorns, wild rice, sumpweed, wildfowl, fish); Southwest (sunflower seeds) -Does agric lead to sedentism or does sedentism lead to agriculture ?
57
Depict Jamestown and Virginia
•The Virginia Company; founding ofJamestown, 1607
-Mixed inigenous response to arrival - Some saw advantage (so they were friendly, providing food but regardless of potential, it turned sour, witht the english stealing food from the indigenous): allies, material .. other fight them
•Early conflicts and accommodations btwn English and Algonquians
- John Smith as leader, he drew maps
- Incident= Smith taken prisoner, almost execute until Pocahantas (favoutire daugther) saves him- plannes drama as a way to demonstrate how English were under the ingigenous power
* Growth of Eng Virginia with tobacco boom from 1620s (Virginia has perfect climate for tobacco, and then English take on smoking it (quasi-religious at first) then popularized by campains and creates an econ and pop boom -then the indigenous are brushed brutely to the side
* English want land: Natives appear as an obstacle to be cleared out of the way (first time the natives need to be cleared, not assimilated)
58
Depict The Aztecs and their Neighbours
•Central valley and lakes •Nahua peoples; Nahuatl language •After Tula: many independent cities( not ruled by empires): conflicts, alliances, tributary relations •Mexica: nomads from the north fighting in wars- legend is that they camped by the side of a lake and see an eagle with a snake in its mouth so they found a city instead of fighting in other peoples war's) •The eagle and the snake: Mexica found Tenochtitlán, 1325- initially paying tribute and submissive but eventually gains power •“Triple Alliance,” 1428: Tenochtitlán, Texcoco, Tlacopan
59
Depict European settlements in north- America
-Shift to settler in 1600 -New Mexico 1598 -Acadia 1605 -Virginia 1607 -Canada/New France 1608 -New England 1620 (English project to colonize Massachusetts) -First experience= sick, hungry, depend on indigenous to survive -French relations more productive because smaller number \*Spanish also establish themselves on mainland
60
Depict the Nahua traditions of recording history
-Images and Symbols inscribed on deerskin or maguey paper -Always connected with oral tradition -Chronicle of sacred and worldly events -Episodic: focus on great military feats, unusual occurrences -Almost all pre-1519 books destroyed by Spanish because they were tinged with pagan spirituality (“diabolical”)
61
Depict the Intrusion from New France in the Great Lakes
-Fur trade: Canadian coureurs de bois (small in number just for trade); assimilate to indigenous ways (they integrate-sexually for eg- they are therefore able to have lucrative trade as they've adapted to indigenous lifetsyle?)
* Jesuit missionaries (a little success but not total conversion)
* Attempts to assert French empire: St Lusson’s ceremony of possession, Sault Ste-Marie,1671; later small mil. forts
-But divergence of understanding between the french (possession) and indigenous (friendship/beneficical relationship)
•Slave trade grafted on to fur trade in early 1700s (because courreur des bois still need to provide goods to indigenous so they need to find something to trade, they slaves usually end up as domestic servant in MTL)
62
Depict Early European Contact in the Arctic
-Norse settlements on Greenland, 986-c.1500
* Frobisher expeditions to Baffin Island, 1576-78 (think he finds gold- in the process: contact with inuit)
* Inuit expansion down Labrador coast to St Lawrence
-European kidnap inuit and take them back
63
Depict Indigenous Senses of Identity and Alterity
-In many languages, the same word (eg. “Innu”) designates both humanity (“real people”) and a specific ethnicity. -Identities defined by kin affiliation, which can encompass animals andspiritual force. "we"= people connected by kinship (not just between humans) -Potential (adoption) for connecting to strangers through extension of symbolic kin links: friends and allies -The Other as potential ally or potential enemy – not inferior/super. When Eur show up, first question = "can they be useful friend and allies? can we include them?"
64
Depict the conquest of Peru (Inca Empire)
-Spanish expedition led by Francisco Pizzaro sail down coast (hears rumour of a rich kingdom), 1530 (more "thug" than cortes) -Inca civil war( because of epidemic and desire to determine the new Inca): Atahualpa defeated his brother Huascar -Cajamarca, 1532: Pizzaro captures Atahualpa; ransom (Incas don't take the Spanish seriously at first but then they manage to capture Inca and they end up killing him in the name of Christianity) -1533-35 – Inca resistance (New Inca to lead resistance, a lot of war, incas still command andes lands and Spanish almost loose) -1530s – Chaos and civil war among conquistadores -1540 – King sends a viceroy to establish order and colonial go
65
Depict the Spanish Narrative Sources
-Hernán Cortés, Letters to king: Second Letter 30 Oct 1520; Third Letter 15 May 1522 -Cortés needs to tell the story while demonstrating his worthinessoWhat’s in it for the king? (gold and silver) -Legitimate recourse to violence -A “just war” if Aztecs can appear to be vassals in revolt -Bernal Diaz del Castillo, A True History of the Conquest of New Spain, 156
66
Depict Kallingo ; the island Carib
Semi-sedentary villagers on a smaller scale than Tainos -No elaborate hierarchy except between women and men -Women grow cassava and sweet potato, men hunt, fish and make war -Migration from South Amer through Lesser Antilles; attacks on Tainos -Captured enemy men often cooked and eaten; women treated as slaves or secondary wives -Caribs as "cannibals" : Spanish ideological dichotomy of good Indians (tainos) and bad Indians (Carib) -1493: Caribs resist Columbus; they continue to fight colonization Spanish slave raids
67
Depict Health Illness and colonization
-A. Crosby, Jared Diamond: Natives have no immunity to Old World diseases – hence their vulnerability -David Jones argues that this is an oversimplification: vulnerability to disease and mortality of epidemics is always conditioned by various factors: malnutrition, fatigue, demoralization, medical care... -Impact of diseases varies greatly with circumstances -Question of how immunity works- related to social political factors -Espanola= overworked, malnourished, cultural trauma, more prone to epidemics
68
Depict the Aztec Empire
-Highly victorious -Expanding Aztec hegemony across central Mexico -Many victories for the triple alliance (victory = they take the defeated god's and the defeated owe tribute, on which the economy depends on, paying tribute doesn't mean to be dependant , they are not controlled by Aztecs ) -Example of tribute = valuable goods, not just maize -Unconquered enemies include Tlaxcallan confederacy (4 cities) to the east -Empire of "plunder", not integrated governed space -Lots of tension, neighbouring cities in alliance by fear not because they feel good about the Aztec - so when Spanish arrives, it explodes
69
Depict Early European Contact for Algonquian of Southern New-England
* European fishers and traders visit coast inearly 17thC. leads to a lot of casual relations
* Some Natives kidnapped and taken to Europe (to ridge linguistic barrier and be "put on display")
* Tisquantum kidnapped 1614 by Thomas Hunt;sold as slave in Spain (once he finally returns back home, everyone is dead because of the epidemic, he ends for, for political reasons, living with the english)
* Epidemic of 1616-18 depopulates coastal New England (this happens just before the english arrive to they find no one (almost) but corn fields, they see meaning of the "hand of god" at work, some even goes to say that since indigneous died, Europeans were actually the ones meant for the land)
70
Depict the Algonquian Peoples of the Chesapeake
* Lush environment of the tidewater Chesapeake
* Semi-sedentary villagers: maize (+beans+squash) agric.
- relocate seasonally (less sedentary than iroquois)
- Fall= move in the interior for deer hunting- Spring- coast for shellfish+fish
•Houses built of poles and woven mats
-More hierachy than iroquois
* Chief (weroance) as central figure: collects tribute,distributes gifts (ususally with multiple wives and children- literally the father of the people)
* Powhatan: chief of regional preeminence around 1600. (Name applied to a man, a village and a society)
-Weroance of a village can get control of another village (war, marriage) so tribute is paid by many
71
Depict Inuit (Thule culture)
- Alaska/Bering Strait hunters of bowhead whale
- Small mobile community
* Rapid eastward migration ca. 1000-1500 AD (warmer period?)
* A search for iron and copper? quest for better supply because Inuit hear rumors of viking , they rapidely occupy north territory, inuit take over previous dorset, norse territory which maybe disapear because of lack of inter-marriage , or conflict)
* Vessels made of skin and drift wood: kayaks (seal hunting), umiaks (whale hunting) ; dog sleds
- Big part of sucess story= transportation
* Whales, seals, fish, walrus, caribou = supply of fat, oil used for heat and light
* Nutrition: hardly any plants or carbohydrates (vitamins from fish eating by big game
- Males = hunting
- Women roles= clothing, ivoru needles
- No political hierarchy, small varrying band leader, usually shamans
* Shamanism: “spirit flight” to sky or underworld
* One language across the Arctic: Inuktitu
72
Explain from conquest to colonization (Spanish)
-conquest not ordered by king , conquest as the fruit of conquest (Spanish as conquerers and Indigenous as conquered = 2 different types of people) -Spanish Crown (vice royalty of Spanish empire) establishes governments, courts, churches, etc. (trying to control their gifted land) -The missionary enterprise: convert the "pagan Indians", not aloud to force people to convert so they do it through dominance/power -Encomienda: communities "entrusted" to a Spaniard (which gets the tribute, and exploits, taxes crops + violence) -“New Laws,” 1542: enslavement illegal but escape falls perpetuate it; phase out encomienda (as reports finally come to Spain, (acute conflict about the treatment of Indians) the king is against it, he wants to create an ideal society (still very hierarchical)
73
What is the Pawnee creation story
Created from stars- star power created the earth
74
Depict the Empire Effect
17th-18thC. North Amer: coexistence of colonies and
independent indigenous nations
-The french would like to claim the territory but they are not really in control
•Effects on interior Natives of Eur. presence on the coasts:
–Trade: new products, technologies
–Disease: epidemics advance beyond direct colonization
–War: destabilization, migration, uneven distribution of weapons
* Rise of regional military powers on edges of colonization: Haudenosaunee, Cherokee, Creek...
* European empires attempt to take advantage of chaos to
assert control
\*shatter zone = area of violence and epidemics European Empire attempt to take advantage of chaos
75
Depict Coastal California
* Six culture areas; 100+ languages
* Early 18thC population: about 300,000 (which will get halved after)
-No agric but very substantial food sources : seeds, acorns, hunting, fishing - varried diet that support population
•“Tribelets”: local societies of villages and seasonal camps (not a lot of war, peaceful relations which is a disavantage when colonization comes, its pretty easy to pacify populations)
-Small ranching settelres benefited from indigenous labour
* Spanish colonization, 1769-1821:presidios andFranciscan missions
* United States captures California from Mexico,1846-47
76
Explain Beringia theory
-70,000-11,000 YBP -ice age lowering sea levels, area of dry land formed by the lowering and ice deposit; huge ice sheet -Extension of Asia into Alaska - covering a large part of ocean -glacier free; because recent land or no snowfall, -tundra climate (scrub, flat, grasses\_ - good grazing land for large mammals- human followed along ? hunter gathered world population of 5 million, ie- small groups of people moving around -Natural movement to Beringia - where they stayed for a long time before America -Beringia standstill (actual biological change from isolation) suggested by DNA (new genetic makeup born in Beringia)
77
Depict very late colonization in the Arctic
- never as important as inland
- Late 19thC: arctic fur trade; whaling stations; missionaries
* RCMP posts from early 1900s: attempt to impose Canadian law
* Epidemics of measles, whooping cough, tuberculosis (20thC)
* Air connections to the south from 1940s
* Nunavut (1999); Nunavik, Quebec; Nunatsiavut (Nfld/Labrador)
78
Depict the Republica de Indios
-Native communities (pueblos), politically independent units self-governing under Sp authority -Ideal of “racial” segregation: Spaniards and Indians (physically separate spheres, languages) -Reality of growing mestizo population (because of sex exploitation + African slaves)- a lot of people are increasingly difficult to separate in 2 kinds -Subject to tribute and labour services (Mita in the andes) - payment as token of subjection -“Indians”: protection and regulated exploitation -Labour services; repartimiento the Indios, allocated by gov. officials, supposed to be paid, symbolic of their status -Guaranteed ownership of their lands
79
What is Quipu
Quipu: knotted strings as communication and recording device- messengers passing the quipu (with conch trumpets)
80
Describe general features of agriculture in the Americas (4)
-Much land unsuited to agric: deserts, tropical forest, tundra... -a “vertical” continental axis: obstacle to diffusion -Gradual transition from gathering to cultivating -Plant crops, mostly without livestock -Digging stick and earth mound tillage, rather than plough (which was the case in Europe + animals) \*plough is intrusive to environnements, violent delving into earth's surface vs North-American more "gentle" methods
81
Depict the expanding colonization
-Rapid depopulation through disease, environmental change, exploitation and violence- the Spanish deal with this issue by raiding and expanding to other islands. -Sea borne slave raids = sneak up on villages, massacre, kidnapp, ship as slaves on Espanola -“Indians” as a dwindling resource -\> expanded conquests -Puerto Rico (1508), Jamaica (1509), Cuba (1511) occupied -Raids to capture slaves on other islands and mainland -The slavery industry is not well received by the crown, the Queens decrees (after slaves are brought back) that there should be no enslavement of indigenous yet it stills goes on and becomes a massive phenomenon
82
83
Depict the Old world Plants introduced to the new-world
-Wheat, oats, apples, peaches, etc. in temperate climates -Sugar cane, bananas, coffee, indigo, oranges, etc. in tropical regions -Environmental impact of Eur agricultural practices -Weeds: dandelion, thistle, plantain, et (huge impact on indigenous agriculture)
84
Depict 18thc New-Mexico
-Growing Sp-Mestizo presence
* Agric economy with emphasis on sheep raising
* Conflicts with Apaches, Navajos. Raids,enslavement of captives by both sides
* rise of Commanches – New Mexico andnorthern Mex. have to pay tribute
* 19thC: control passes to independent Mexico,then USA
85
Depict the semi-arid west (pueblos)
A long history of maize cultivation in river valleys and irrigated fields; pottery andstone/adobe buildings
* Hohokam cultures of S. Arizona (200-1400 AD): major irrigation works (which allowed population growth), roads and elaborate towns
* Anasazi culture: pit house to pueblo; Chaco Canyon, 900-1150 AD; Pueblo Bonita; MesaVerde, 500-1300 AD; circular form of irrigation allowed population in otherwise arid land
-Kiva= underground chamber
86
Depict the Wendat Confederation
-not a people, a confederation, a amalgam of different nations coming together -Wendat: four distinct tribes (Arendarhonon, Attignawantan, Attigneenongnahac, Tahontaenrat). -These nations congregated in Georgian Bay-Lake Simcoe region, moving from dispersed locations across S. Ont. in the 16th C. -Matrilineal clans – Wolf, Deer, Turtle, etc. – cross-cut nations; they are exogamous, ensuring social cohesion (can't marry in your clan, men identity defined by his wife's- groom moves into long house) -Civil chiefs and war chiefs. Decisions are made by consensus (politics are male dominated) -Men meet in councils (military, civilian) at local and confederacy levels -Captains determined by election (approved by himself and commodity) and inheritance -Highly organized, respectful assemblies (Europeans very impressed by that) -Decisions based on "plurality/majority"- democracy ?
87
Describe Coexistence and Hegemogy for the Alconquians of New-England
Native-English coexistence under Eng hegemony (still fairly small area but very powerful)
-English not so missionary but still manage to se up a few christian townships for indigenous wishing to convert
* Environmental change undermines native subsistence (pressure on land in large, indigenous are driven out, english livestock destroying indigenous food supply)
* “Indian deeds” – alliance treaty or land purchase?
* Colonial authority over native communities, 1644
* Converts to Christianity: “praying town
88
Depict the descruction of Chesapeake Algonquians
1622: major war of resistance led by Opechancanough (very violent war, indigenous desire to drive the English out, English almost lose but then they rally and slaughter)
* Exterminationist aims of Native attack and English counter-attack
* Another revolt 1644; settlers attack 1675 (attack to have more land)
* Natives largely eliminated from eastern Virginia by late 17thC
89
Explain the Clovis Theory
-Older theory based on : -Found arrow points near mammals bones in New-Mexico then found all around America -Very smart, sharp points of spear or knife blade -Suggests people came from Asia on Alaska-Siberia connection, then went down the 2 ice sheets on the Rocky Mountains to New-Mexico
90
Depict the Distant Empires
* Spanish New Mexico: conflict, trade, captives,horses
* French in Great Lakes and Mississippi (La.)
* British on Hudson Bay & into northern plains
* Northward spread of horses, equestrianism;Southward, westward spread of guns
* Smallpox, 1780-82 = weakened vis-a-vis hunting/nomads
-Competin European powers
91
State some general observations regarding the pacific coast peoples
Heavy concentration of population – without agriculture ( no corn, no horses)
* Tremendous diversity of languages, peoples
* Late experience of colonization
-pretty densely population
92
Explain the Continent Adrift in the Columbian Exchange
-Americas isolated from “Old World” over millions of years of evolution (except during some Ice Age conditions) -Separate inventions of agriculture: different crop plants developed in Old and New Worlds -Old World agriculture heavily reliant on domesticated animals (which propels virus exchange)- connect to Asia and Africa so germs travel = epidemics -Old World humans and their livestock share disease germs/viruses -New world (before 1492) sees less exposition to disease, so when they come in contact with European pathogens = devastating
93
Depict the Great Lakes Turmoil
- 1660-1690s
- Refugees from Haudenosaunee wars: Wendat,Ottawa, etc. gathering of persecuted people, villages forms amongst different ethic background, hunger and disease in that zone. Trouble to find peace becasue traditional enemies have to work together. Poitical challenge of finding unity under stress and no potential treatees.
* Haudenosaunee attacks on western lakes and upper Mississippi
* Multi-ethnic villages where different peoples cohabit – pressure on food resources
* Difficulty uniting against common enem
94
Depict Native Depopulation due to the Columbian Exchange
-Pre-Columbian population figures uncertain and controversial -The Americas: 50,000,000 in 1492? -Heaviest concentration in Mesoamerica and Andes -North America: 7,000,000? Canada: 500,000?-Population loss following Eur contact: 50%? 80%? 90%? -How and why? War; massacres; environmental damage; disease
95
Depict the historical racialism and racism
-Racism: belief in an ethnic hierarchy, essential qualities rooted in bodily differences; inherited abilities and limitations -Spanish theory of “impure blood” (often determined by cultural) : Muslims, Jews, Indigenous - blood passed on from generations to generations (which keep "converted" christian on the margin EVEN) -Limited significance attached to skin colour in 16th-17thC - use of African slaves -Full-blown racism an 18th -19th century developmen
96
Depict the Old world animals introduced to the new-world
-Pigs (very fertile and go feral so quite dangerous) roaming free damage indigenous agriculture (interfering because no fences) -Cattle, Horses, sheep, goats- they roam free finding new environments (grass plains without competitors), cattle doubles every 15 years because very fertile -Whole ecology is transformed by animals -Sheep raised in Mexico led to destruction of plants= desert where there use to be thriving agriculture -Expansion of cattle ranching in Mexico -Feral herds transform the pampas of S. Amer and plains of N. Amer -New species of bees, rats, etc. Imported bird species
97
Indigenous Environmental Defenders
* Indigenous stewardship and environmental sustainability
* Matthew Coon Come, Cree (Quebec)
* Davi Kopenawa, Yanomani (Brazil)
* Berta Cáceres, Lenca (Hondura)
-Corporation acessing land by: hiring lawers to find loopholes + getting close to politcal authority (as the gov. comits to econ dev. + accepts bribery)
\*the best way to fight climate change is to reinforce indigenous land rights because indigenous forest are vital to keep carbon out of the atmosphere
98
Depict New People in the American Plains
* War, migration: mixing of people (crow for rg)
* Captives, enslavement (comanche raid party)
- some women marry and children become part of people, inclusion of enemies
- People end up in the hands of traders as they are forcably enslaved (difference between being captured a slave in the plains vs European= permanence (children are also slaves)
- Lot of traders have children with indigenous + emergence of a distinct societty of metis (Mixed blood) and mergence of cultural and social structures - elements of both indigenous and french (appearance, language, cultures, features)- hybrid society and practices
•French-native mixing: Métis people of Red River
99
The Legend of Pocahontas
* Modern versions of the John Smith –Pocahontas love story
* John Smith’s account
* “Noble Savages” and Nature
* Myths of moral redemption
-Brutal violence remmerbered as romance shows the way history shaped through colonization
100
Depict the middle ground
-Alliance against Haudenosaunee and then Anglo-Americans (common energy joinded forces)
•Fur trade as econ underpinning of Franco-Anishinaabe alliance (provide material basis, indigenous need the goods (metal))
-Motives differ widely+very shaky alliance
* French pretence to rule: king and governor of N-Fr as“father”
* Indigenous acceptance of Onontio (governor) as “father”
* “-Creative misunderstanding”:Onontio as authority?mediator? provider?
\*the indigenous need/want a mediator but they refuse authority- so French provide that role.
\*The french want control; they dont have obidience so meeting take place; where "father" speeches take place
•Alliance maintained through gifts, summer meetings at Montreal, cross-cultural sexual/family relations, etc
101
(N-A colonialism) Depict the hundreds of Nation
-Compared to Mesoamerica and Andes, a smaller, less dense pop. -Many distinct ethnicities; diversity of languages, ways of life -Sometimes classified by language families, sometimes by way or life: hunter-gathering peoples; semi-sedentary villagers -Attempt to classify people by way of life -General pattern (1500-) of protracted experience of indirect contact and colonization, rather than sharp decisive conquest -European settlement= small yet has indirect influence/effects (through trade ) on "un-conquered" people
102
Resource Extraction Boom of the early 21 stCentury
•Threats to Indigenous territories posed by multinational
corporations
* Ranching and Palm Oil Plantations: Brazil, Guatemala
* Logging vs Hunting: Brazil, northern Canada
* Mining: Canada, Mexico, Brazil, etc.
* Petroleum and Pipelines
–Athabaska Tar Sands and related pipelines: Keystone XL,Northern Gateway, Transmountain
–Dakota Access Pipeline and Standing Rock Sioux, 2016
•Hydro-electric dams and flooding: northern Quebec, BC,Honduras
103
What is the Wendat creation story
-Sky Mother falls onto earth on turtle shell-gave birth to 2 sons who fought
104
Depict the Empire of the Four Corners
-The Inca (emporer), son of Inti, sun god - uncertain succession, he is seen as divine figure -His main wife related to the moon -Mummified deceased Incas retain their estates and courts -Cuzco: capital city; not as impressive as Aztecs, residence of the Inca, a religious centre surrounded by sacred landscape, the centre of the world, "navel of the universe", scare centre -Four quarters of the empire; each quarter divided into provinces , Inca's understanding of the world, lines are understood to divide the whole world/universe- a sense of sacred geography -Conquests: disciplined armies; effective logistical support. Incas depend on organized, disciplined army some of the "Inca" fought in military, enemy seen as barbarian. They see no limit to their conquering range -Forced relocation of peoples -Government; Incas lands, public granaries -Roads and bridges- communications (very good roads) is important as it knit the together the empire -Quipu: knotted strings as communication and recording device- messengers passing the quipu (with conch trumpets)
105
Indigenous Territories and Early Modern Empires (16th-18thC.)
•Did European claims to America imply Native
dispossession? uncertain, when monarch claim land, political sovreingty is asserted but ownership transfer is unclear
- Maps indicate ownership of indigenous- French claim coexist with indigenous proprety (Spain and British in some way similar)
- Fuzzy boundaries on both part; territory implies uncertain ambiguous boundaries
* Territorial indeterminacy of both Indigenous lands and Eur empires
* Complexities of land as property – in Eur andIndigenous contexts
* Multiple claims to resources of a territory: kin,community, landlord (no individual owner)
-Lnad= not a market commodity
•Can land be sold or otherwise alienate
106
Explain the fringe theories (3)
-Solutrean Hypothesis : claiming link between Clovis points and solutrean culture of ancient Europe. People from Europe supposedly crossed Atlantic 2000 YBP -Kennewick Man: 9000 YBB skeleton found in Washington 1996 6. Archeologist claims face is “Caucasoid.” DNA testing in 2015 confirms ancestral relationship to local indigenous populati -White Nationalist fantasies deny that indigenous were original inhabitant of America
107
Depict the Artic Envrionment
-Connections: Siberia, Alaska, N. Canada, Greenland
* Coastlines: ice to water; seasonal extremes,long-term climate change
* Narrow range of plants and animals; big animals, large herds
* A hunter’s paradise for those who can adapt
-Narvals, whales, walarus = large concentration of very nutritious animals (fat)- also dangerous animals
108
Depict local Inca societies
- Rural, not as many cities as Aztec -Ayllu: community united in kinship; also an economic unit (sense of unity by bonds, collection of territory connected by human holders) -Land holdings scattered across climatic zones (people scattered across micro climates, by having different crops in different regions they protect themselves from climate issues/weather/crop failure (diversity is key) -Curaca: community leader (both part of link between community and rulers) - it remains in place even after Spanish -Mita: rotating labour service imposed on ayllus, Inca emperors require ayllus to send (men) workers , labour supply comes from ayllus, eg: 50 for 2 weeks to work on roads -Huacas: rocks, mountains, springs of local religious significant (eg: stones in Machu pichu)
109
What is the Homo sapiens (migration in a changing climate) theory in terms of peopling the Americas
-From East Africa, hunters move to Asia, Europe, Aus, 100,000-40,000 YBP -Climate Changes force movements of game and of human -Large Mammals (Caribou, musk Owen, wooly mammoth) attract hunters to frigid tundra of NE Siberia, following migration
110
Depict Patterns of Conquest
-Iberian precedents: the Reconquista – and anti-Muslim Crusade \*the Christians won before heading off. The cultural tone of the crusade can be seen in colonism/conquest -How to account for numerous and rapid victories of the Spaniards? Military technology (guns, bolts), horses (transportation+charging), epidemics ( incas suffered before contact even, destructive events followed the epidemics) -Guns, Germs and Steel? Or male warriors (Spanish army vs men, women and children) , surprise (Spanish know what to expect, indigenous don't), ruthlessness (cultural constraints of war fully disrespected)? -What about Spanish defeat - They hit their limit when trying to conquest dispersed indigenous, Spanish claims unfair wars
111
Depict the Tainos
-Arawaks of the greater Antilles -Semi-sedentary villagers -a large pop, centred on Eastern Hispanola & Puerto Rico -Caciques, nobles, commoners: a “chiefdom” -Horticulture using mounds of earth -Staple crop: cassava (manioc); also sw. potato, maize,
112
Depict the Secotans, Croatans and the “Lost Colony” of Roanoke Island
* Roanoke Island colony 1585-90 (present-dayNorth Carolina)
* John White’s watercolours
* Native-English conflict; Spanish-English W
113
King Phillip's War 1675
-Wampanoag under Metacom (“King Philip”) form a coalition of most N. Eng. Nations. Attack Eng settlements with surprising success.
* Eng counter-attack against both hostile and friendly Natives
* Concentration camps, mass executions, enslavement
* Conflict intensifies settler hatred against undifferentiated “Indians
114
Depict the Greek vs Barbarian dichotomy
Greeks: -Speak Greek -Agriculture -Cities -Writing -Government -Civility Barbarians: -Incomprehensible babbling -Hunting -Nomadic -Illiterate -Disorganized -Unrestrained manner
115
Depict Europea (Old World) models of agricultural revolution
-cant just dabble in agriculture, rapid transition from food gathering to cultivation -emergence of cereal, food surplus easily storable which can feed a lot of people -Fosters population growth when storing food -Different "développements" creations such as : states, cities, population, military, diseases (because of animal and population), famine, growth etc
116
Depict the Spanish conquest in North, South and Central America
- over a long time to conquest a lot of territory - Central America (pretty quick) and northern South America ( a lot longer because smaller groups of indigenous) -Invasion of the Maya lands, 1524-45: surrender, flight and guerilla resistance - harder to colonize because "decentralized" \*very big imposing empires with big armies fell easily where as, the small, de-centralized didn't) -Northward from Mexico: silver rush (leading expansion of colonial empire to the north + attempts to take on mainland) -Into “Florida”: De Soto’s entrada- trying to find gold and kingdom to conquer (very violent encounter with no conquest but a lot of damage) -From Peru: south into Chile, east into the Amazon -Rio de la Plata: Paragua - has a large number of indigenous, used as servants/sex slaves, exploitation regime/colony
117
What is Curaca
community leader (both part of link between community and rulers) - it remains in place even after Spanish
118
Depict Early Europeans Probes (tentative contracts not always resulting in conquest)
-North Atlantic Crossings: to Nfld, Baffin Is, Hudson Bay -“Florida”: de Soto et al -Southwest: Coronado -St Lawrence: Jacques Cartier -“Virginia”: Roanoke Is. -Voyages to territory not so populated today (ex: arctic) -Contact with indigenous without usually desire to conquer -Failure to find gold, empire, conquest (found resistance, decentralized people they can't control) -They damage but no conquest, no successful colonies -Currents explains why Middle America wasn't found first
119
What is "Mita"
Mita: rotating labour service imposed on ayllus, Inca emperors require ayllus to send (men) workers , labour supply comes from ayllus, eg: 50 for 2 weeks to work on roads
120
Depict the wars of the 17th
-Five Nations vs. Algonquin-Innu-Wendat-French alliance (tradition of conflict which increased)
•Why? Competition to control fur trade? Territory?Population?
- Wendat attack supported by Champling against Onondaga
- Death in roquois society increase warfare
•Mourning War Complex” with emphasis on captive taking (ojective of any military expedition)
-Captive male ususally face torture then death (or adopted by a clan, capitve chane their identities helped through pain
•Destruction of Wendat, 1649 (Tionnontaté, Neutral, Erie in
1650s)
* Why were the Haudenosaunee so successful? Guns? - they become very powerful as they rebuild their strenght and population after diseases (so their population is not born out of the 5 nations anymore)
* A multi-ethnic warrior nation by 1660s: growing numbers of
assimilated captives makes for internal tensions and fissi
121
Define the 5 nations ethnonyms
122
Depict the new-world plants to the old world
-Rubber, tobacco, varieties of cotton -Maize( becomes a staple crop in the O-W), potatoes (takes time but gets adopted and leads to increase in population), cassava (becomes a staple in Africa) -3 new staples : very nutritious, fuels the population rise perhaps, ironically makes them stronger to further colonize (turning against indigenous who invented the crops) -Pumpkin, bean, sweet potato, squash, tomato, chocolate, peanuts -Chocolate and tobacco have spiritual dimension which was initially pursued in Europe -Major contribution to global food supply (1/3 of world supply was born in the new-world)
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Treaties and Ceded Territory
•Royal Proclamation of 1763:
–Only Crown can acquire Indigenous lands (colonists cant buy land from natives)
–Voluntary, negotiated: compensation for surrendered land (public meeting to determine terms of cessions)
•Up side: theoretically recognizes Indigenous sovereignty &
property
•Down side: frequently imposed by conquest; governments
cheat (+use of violence )
* Implies a more absolute elimination of Indigenous title
* A strictly British/Anglo-American/Anglo-Canadian practice
