Final Flashcards
(198 cards)
1
Q
Macronutrients
A
Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins
2
Q
Micronutrients
A
vitamins, minerals
3
Q
carbohydrate
A
4 kcal/g; provide energy #1
4
Q
lipid
A
9 kcal/g; growth & development, regulation, energy #2; triglycerides (saturated vs. unsaturated), phospholipids, sterols
5
Q
protein
A
4 kcal/g; structure, g & d, regulation, energy #3; contains nitrogen
6
Q
Cohort study
A
study of population free of a disease over many years and observe whether those with or without a factor present develop the disease or not
7
Q
case-control
A
compare those with a condition to those without
8
Q
double-blind
A
research and participants do not know whether they received treatment or placebo
9
Q
estimated average requirements (EAR)
A
nutrient intake amounts estimated to meet the need of 50% of the population
10
Q
recommended dietary allowances (RDA)
A
nutrient intake amount to meet needs of 97-98% of population at a specific life stage; =1.2(EAR)
11
Q
adequate intakes (AI)
A
RDA for nutrients with insufficient research; still covers 97-98% of population
12
Q
tolerable upper intake levels (UL)
A
maximum tolerable chronic daily intake of a nutrient (does not cause adverse effects)
13
Q
estimated energy requirements (EER)
A
kcal intake needed to match energy use
14
Q
acceptable macronutrient distribution ranges (AMDR)
A
not DRI; macronutrient intake (% energy) associated with reduced risk of disease
15
Q
5 DRIs
A
EAR, RDA, AI, UL, EER
16
Q
AMDR for carbohydrates
A
40-60%
17
Q
AMDR for lipids
A
15-25%
18
Q
AMDR for proteins
A
25-35%
19
Q
MyPlate recommendations
A
balance calories, increase vegetables, fruits, whole grains, low-fat or fat-free dairy, decrease sodium and sugary drinks
20
Q
Dietary Guidelines for Americans (DGAs)
A
gov’t guidelines put in by the USDA and DHHS released every 5 years; goal is to meet nutrient needs and reduce risk of chronic disease; reflect scientific expert consensus; policy, education and programs
21
Q
Energy density
A
kcal > grams
22
Q
nutrient density
A
nutrient value (= amount in serving / DRI value) > kcal; assesses nutrient quality
23
Q
FDA
A
regulate the marketplace specifically the products
24
Q
FTC
A
regulates the marketplace specifically advertising
25
Goal of digestion
breaking down large compound in food into smaller molecules to be absorbed and used by the body
26
Mouth (1)
mechanical (chewing, moisten) and chemical (amylase, lipase, lysozyme); saliva (taste)
27
Esophagus (2)
food (now a bolus) to stomach through lower esophageal sphincter via peristalsis
28
Stomach (3)
minimal nutrient absorption -> water, alcohol; mechanical (mixing and churning) into chyme; protein breakdown, some fats, vitamin B-12 absorption, no carbs; major hormone = gastrin
29
Small intestine (4)
chyme thru pyloric sphincter; major site of digestion: water, glucose, amino acids, fats, vitamins, minerals; major hormones: cholecystokinin (CCK) and secretin
30
Large Intestine (5)
absorb water and electrolytes, form and remove feces, house microbiota; water, some fatty acids, vitamin K and biotin
31
secretions of the stomach
mucus, gastric lipase/pepsinogen [chief cells], intrinsic factor, HCl (denatures proteins) [parietal cells]
32
accessory organs
liver, gallbladder, and pancreas; produce emulsifiers, hormones, and enzymes; all emptied and mixed in small intestine*
33
bile
emulsifier, made by liver, stored in GB, fat digestion
34
pancreas secretions
bicarbonate (neutralize acidic chyme), pancreatic amylase, lipase, and proteases
35
intestinal enzymes
peptidases, disaccharidases, lipases
36
purpose of villi and microvilli
increase surface area of small intestine for more absorption
37
carbohydrate "purpose"
digestable (starch, sugar) - energy!
indigestible (fiber) - bowel health
38
recommendations for peps with lactose intolerance
<12g lactose at a time (1 cup of milk), drink small amounts of milk, consume dairy with meals, yogurt and hard cheese >>>, use lactase products
39
Digestion & Absorption of carbohydrates
1. Mouth - salivary amylase (enzyme) - PS into smaller PS and DS
2. Stomach - nothing bc of HCl
3. Small Intestine - MAIN SPOT - pancreatic amylase
a. absorptive cells of SI - DS and MS - active transport and facilitated diffusion
4. Large intestine (indigestible carbs) - bacterial enzymes or excreted
5. transported thru bloodstream to energy cells or for storage (glycogen in liver and muscles or fat)
40
type 1 diabetes
immune-mediated destruction of insulin-producing beta-cells; 5% of cases; reduced or no insulin; no real cause tbh
41
type 2 diabetes
insulin resistance or loss of cell responsiveness; 90% of cases; associated with inactivity and obesity
42
Diabetes prevention program
goal: lose 7% of body weight and maintain this weight loss thru eating less fat and calories, exercising, meetings/phone calls
outcome: lower change of Type 2 in treatment group, this chance decreases as time went on
43
insulin
released by beta cells when BG is elevated; glucose is transported to body cells and glucose is converted to glycogen
44
glucagon
released by alpha cells when BG is low; glycogen is broken down into glucose, increase gluconeogenesis
45
triglyceride
3 fatty acids + glycerol backbone
46
essential fatty acids
omega-3 and omega-6
47
sources of essential fatty acids
omega-3 - alpha-linolenic acid (walnuts, seeds, oil) - DHA (fish)
omega-6 - arachidonic acid (meat, oils)
48
DHA and EPA function
improves cognition, behavior, and mood; reduces risk of macular degeneration; normalizes blood lipids
49
arachidonic acid function
regulates BP; increases blood clotting
50
function of phospholipids
cell membrane component, emulsifier
51
function of cholesterol
makes sex hormones, active form of vitamin d, cell membrane, cortisone, bile, chylomicron
52
digestion of lipids
1. mouth - lingual lipase
2. stomach - gastric lipase
3. intestine** - cholesterol esterase, phospholipase, CCK, bile, pancreatic lipase
4. micelle enters absorptive cells
53
absorption of lipids
1. remove fatty acids and monoglyceride from micelle
2. make a new triglyceride
3. packaged with cholesterol and coats with protein and phospholipid --> chylomicron
4. chylomicron enters lacteal (lymphatic system) and bloodstream (near heart)
54
transportation of lipids
1. chylomicron travels, LPL breaks down fat, chylomicron remnant back to liver
2. fat leaves liver in VLDL, transported to cells via LPL, forms LDL
3. LDL taken up by receptor pathways (body cells) and by scavenger pathways (blood vessels)
4. HDL arises from liver, transfers cholesterol from body cells to other LPL
55
lipoprotein lipase (LPL)
hydrolyzes circulating TG from chylomicrons and VLDL to free FA and glycerol, FA to cells for energy, glycerol to liver; we don't eat these
56
chylomicron
triglycerides
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very low density lipoprotein (VLDL)
triglycerides mainly
58
low density lipoprotein (LDL)
cholesterol mainly
59
high density lipoprotein (HDL)
protein mainly
60
atherosclerosis, heart disease, and lipids
excess LDL in blood --> macrophages are killed by cholesterol build up which forms plague and thus atherosclerosis
61
9 essential amino acids
phenylalanine, valine, tryptophan, threonine, methionine, histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine; obtained by diet, body does not make
62
how body back proteins
DNA (genes) > mRNA > amino acids > peptide bond > protein
63
protein function
make body structures, maintain fluid and pH balance, form enzymes, hormones, and neurotransmitters, transport proteins, source of energy (gluconeogenesis)
64
protein digestion and absorption
1. stomach - HCl denatures (no shape = no function), pepsin breaks chains
2. small intestine - CCK and secretin, protease
3. amino acids activity absorbed
4. liver
65
amino acid use in the body
body proteins, supplied by diet and recycling, making new compounds (no storage), transamination, deamination
66
transamination
transferring of an amino group from 1 amino acids to the carbon of a new amino acid (new NEAA)
67
deamination
amino group > ammonia > urea
carbon skeleton > glucose, energy, fat
kidneys: urea + ammonia + creatinine
urination
68
nitrogen balance
determines protein needs
equilibrium = protein intake = protein losses
69
protein sources
70% meat, poultry, fish, milk, cheese, legumes, nuts
30% other
70
high quality (complex) proteins
contain all 9 EAA, support body growth and maintenance, animal protein
71
lower-quality (incomplete) protein
are low in or lack one or more EAA, can't support body growth and maintenance, plant protein (except: quinoa, soy)
72
limiting amino acid
the EAA found in the lowest concentration in a protein source; reduces protein's ability; often lysine, methionine, threonine, tryptophan, isoleucine
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risk of high protein intake
dehydration, continued decline in kidney function, increase urinary calcium losses
74
metabolism
the sum of all chemical reactions in the body; convert food into energy
75
anabolic pathway
small compounds to large compounds; requires energy; glucose, fatty acids, cholesterol, and amino acids are building blocks
76
catabolic pathways
break down compounds; results in release of CO2, H2O, and ATP
77
glycolysis
glucose (6-C) oxidized to form 2 molecules of pyruvate (3-C) + NADH + H+ + 2ATP; occurs in cytoplasm; anaerobic; reversible
78
Citric acid cycle (TCA) / Krebs cycle
Acetyl-CoA (from pyruvate) eventually leads to guanosine triphosphate (GTP) which can be converted into 2 ATPs; oxaloacetate is then regenerated; FADH2 formed as well as NADH and H+
79
electron transport chain (ETC)
primary site of ATP production; oxygen is the final acceptor of electrons during aerobic respiration; about 32 ATP and H2O produced
80
Cori cycle
anaerobic; pyruvate to lactate which is then transported from muscle to liver to be converted to glucose and then returned to muscles; reversible; quick energy; cytoplasm
81
Starvation and fasting
glucose is primary source until glycogen stores have been depleted; then fats are used and eventually proteins (gluconeogenesis); fatty acids cannot be used by nervous system or RBCs so they are converted to ketone bodies which can be used
82
ketosis in diabetes
type 1; insulin is not present so cells cannot use glucose; rapid lipolysis occurs and ketone bodies are produced in excess
83
fatty acid oxidation (beta-oxidation)
fatty acids are cleaved 2 carbons at a time to create acetyl-CoA (TCA); the role of carbohydrates in fat metabolism; also keeps oxaloacetate levels up
84
protein metabolism
deamination which results in carbon skeletons which can then be used to form glucose or ketone bodies; occurs in liver; amino groups are then converted to ammonia and excreted via urea cycle
85
coenzyme (definition)
ions or small molecules that interact with enzymes, enabling the enzymes to function; inactive compound + B vitamin = coenzyme
86
thiamin (B1) coenzyme
thiamin pyrophosphate (TPP)
87
riboflavin (B2) coenzyme
flavin mononucleotide (FMN) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)
88
niacin (B3) coenzyme
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and NAD phosphate (NADP)
89
pantothenic acid and biotin coenzyme
coenzyme A (CoA), acetyl CoA
90
pyridoxine (B6) coenzyme
pyridoxal phosphate (PLP)
91
folate (folic acid) coenzyme
tetrahydrofolate (THFA)
92
cyanocobalamin (B12) coenzyme
methyl cobalamin
93
B vitamins involved in energy
thiamin (B1), riboflavin (B2), niacin (B3), pyridoxine (B6), pantothenic acid, biotin
94
B vitamins involved in amino acid metabolism
thiamin (B1), pyridoxine (B6), folate (B9), cobalamin (B12), biotin
95
good sources of vitamin B6
meat (pork/beef), poultry, fish, enriched fortified cereals, seeds, garbanzo beans, white potato
96
good sources of folate
fortified or enriched grains, orange juice, dried beans, broccoli, asparagus, artichokes, beets, avocado, dark green leafy vegetables
97
good sources of B12
meat (beef, pork), seafood, shellfish, milk, cottage cheese, yogurt, fortified soy milk and cereals, eggs [naturally present only in foods of animal origins]
98
thiamin (B1) function
TPP participates in glycolysis and TCA cycle; nervous system
99
riboflavin (B2) function
TCA cycle; fatty acid breakdown; ETC; activation of other B vitamins; antioxidant function
100
niacin (B3) function
glycolysis, TCA, pyruvate to lactate, fatty acid synthesis, alcohol metabolism
101
folate function
1-carbon transfers, amino acid metabolism, DNA synthesis and function, RBC formation, neurotransmitter synthesis
102
vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) function
amino acid metabolism; synthesis of heme and neurotransmitters
103
vitamin 12 function
1-carbon transfers, amino acid metabolism, metabolize some FAs, DNA regulation, RBC formation, myelin sheath maintenance
104
Vitamin C function
antioxidant, collagen synthesis, decongestant
105
thiamin (B1) deficiency
Beri Beri - dry (peripheral NS and muscles) vs. wet (cardiovascular)
106
riboflavin (B2) deficiency
ariboflavinosis - inflamed throat, mouth, tongue; cracked tissue around the mouth
107
niacin (B3) deficiency
diarrhea, dermatitis, dementia, death
108
folate deficiency
elevated homocysteine, risk factor of CVD, neural tube defects (spina bifida, anencephaly)
109
vitamin B12 deficiency
pernicious anemia, megaloblastic anemia, neurological changes, elevated homocysteine
110
vitamin C deficiency
scurvy; disrupted synthesis of collagen
111
vitamin B6 in amino acid metabolism
transamination reactions, methionine > homocysteine > cysteine
112
digestion, absorption, and transport of vitamin B-12
1. salivary glands produce R-protein
2. stomach - HCl and pepsin release vit B12 from protein, free B12 bind to R-protein, intrinsic factor
3. small intestine - trypsin releases R-protein from B12, B12 links with intrinsic factor
4. ileum - B12 w/ IF is absorbed into bloodstream; transported by protein transcobalamin II
5. liver - vit b12 stored
113
good food source of Vitamin A
beef liver, fortified dairy, orange veggies and fruit
114
good food sources of vitamin D
fatty fish, fortified dairy and cereal, egg yolk, cod liver oil
115
good food sources of vitamin E
seed oils, peanuts, hazelnuts, almonds, sunflower seeds, wheat germ, avocado
116
good food sources of vitamin K
green veggies, safflower oil, synthesis by bacteria in the colon
117
absorption of fat-soluble vitamins
stomach - vitamins are released from food
small intestine - digestion (enzymes) and absorption (bile)
118
transportation of fat-soluble vitamins
packed in chylomicrons, lymphatic system, liver w/ chylomicron remnant, packaged into lipoproteins, bloodstream
119
role of vitamin A in the vision cycle
retinol form of vitamin A: rods remove retinol from blood stream and convert it to retinal; retinal binds with opsin to form rhodopsin (low light); signal sent to brain
120
role of vitamin D as a hormone and regulator of blood calcium levels
calcitriol helps maintain blood levels of calcium and phosphorus (bone health); vitamin D increases intestinal absorption of Ca and P; vitamin D increases Ca and P release from bone
121
role of vitamin E as an antioxidant
1. in lipid rich areas of the body (cell membranes) - susceptible to lipid per oxidation by free radicals that damage cell membrane
2. enzyme systems - require minerals
122
role of vitamin K as anti-coagulant
activation of clotting factors (preprothrombin > prothrombin > thrombin)
123
function of Vitamin A
reproduction and embryonic development; bone growth and development; gene expression and cell differentiation; analogs in derm
124
function of carotenoids (beta-carotene)
may reduce risk for eye disease, cancer, CVD
125
process of making calcitriol
dietary sources need the presence of dietary fat; metabolized in liver to 25-OH vitamin D3; metabolized in kidneys to 1,25(OH)2 vitamin D3 aka calcitriol; binds to vit D receptors
126
precursor of vitamin A
retinoids (preformed) and carotenoids (provitamin)
127
vitamin D deficiency
rickets (children) and osteomalacia (adults)
128
vitamin A deficiency
hyperkeratosis; blindness
129
vitamin E and vitamin K deficiencies
rare
130
functions of electrolytes
fluid balance between intracellular (K, Mg, Phos, sulf) and extracellular (Na, Ca, Cl, bicarb) environments; protein transporters; osmosis
131
functions of water
solvent; major component of blood, saliva, sweat, tears, mucus, and joint fluid; removes waters; lubricates tissues; regulate body temp; digestion; participates in chem rxns; blood pH maintenance; transporter
132
bioavailability
the amount of a nutrient that is absorbed and made available to body cells and tissues
133
factors that influence bioavailability
interactions with vitamins and other minerals; gastric acidity (HCl increase BA); binding by plant chemicals
134
phytic acid (phytate)
wheat; binds zinc and iron
135
oxalic acid (oxalate)
leafy, green plants; binds calcium
136
polyphenols
tea, dark chocolate, wine; binds calcium and iron
137
antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
released by pituitary gland (posterior lobe > kidney); action = kidneys retain water
138
renin (enzyme)
released by kidneys; action = activates angiotensinogen by converting it to angiotensin I
139
aldosterone (hormone)
released from adrenal gland ( > kidney); action = kidneys retain sodium, chloride, water
140
sodium function
transmission of nerve impulses, muscle contraction, absorption of nutrients (glucose, amino acids)
141
potassium function
nerve transmission, muscle contraction, regulate urinary calcium excretion, regulate BP
142
problems with low potassium
hypertension (heart disease and stroke), may affect bone health
143
chloride function
component of HCl, immune function, maintenance of acid-base balance
144
The Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet
low in sodium, total fat, sat fat, cholesterol; high in fruits, vegetables, low-fat dairy
145
calcium function
develop and maintain bones (remodeling, osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts)
146
produces with high sodium
hypertension (heart disease and stroke); increased urinary calcium excretion (kidney stones)
147
food sources of calcium
tofu, salmon, baked beans, fortified soy milk, yogurt, milk, cheese, cottage cheese, ice cream, collard greens, turnip greens, OJ, almonds
148
absorption, storage, and excretion of calcium
absorbed from small and large intestines; 25-30% absorption efficiency; enhances - calcitriol, stomach acids, lactose; decreases - low vitamin D, reduced stomach acid, physic and oxalic acid intake, high fiber, high phosphorus, chronic diarrhea, fat malabsorption
149
phosphorus function
major component of bone and teeth, regulate acid-base balance, energy production and storage (ATP), component of DNA and RNA, phospholipid in cell membrane, enzyme and cellular message systems
150
good food sources of phosphorus
meat/fish/poultry, dairy, legumes
151
magnesium function
bone structure and mineralization, cofactor, DNA/RNA synthesis, nerve transmission, regulates BP
152
osteoporosis (low calcium)
chronic disease characterized by bones with low mass and reduced structure
153
iron function
oxygen transport = hemoglobin and myoglobin, oxygen delivery, energy metabolism, cell division, immune division, nervous system (myelin sheath and neurotransmitters)
154
enhance iron absorption
vitamin C, heme iron, leavening of bread, fermentation, soaking beans or grain
155
inhibit iron absorption
high intake of Ca, medications, oxalic acid, phytic acid, polyphenols
156
non-heme iron bioavailability
limited absorption, MFP factor and vitamin C increase, phytates and tannins decrease
157
heme iron bioavailability
readily absorbed
158
iron storage and transport
ferritin (major storage form of iron) - liver, spleen, bone marrow; transferrin (transport protein for iron) - bloodstream
159
causes of iron deficiency anemia
blood loss, chronic low intake of iron
160
IDA symptoms
fatigue and weakness, shortness of breath, dizziness/headache, coldness, pale skin
161
microcytic hyochromic anemia
characterized by a lack of RBCs or the production of RBCs that do not contain enough hemoglobin; iron depletion > iron deficiency w/o anemia > IDA
162
zinc function
cofactor, heme synthesis, DNA and RNA synthesis, growth, development, reproduction, bone formation, immune function, antioxidant system, taste
163
increase zinc absorption
low to moderate zinc intake, zinc deficiency, certain amino acids, increased need for zinc
164
decrease zinc absorption
physic acid, fiber, excessive zinc intake, high nonheme iron, good zinc status
165
zinc deficiency
delays growth, delays sex organ maturation, impairs vitamin A function, impair immune function
166
iodine function
component of thyroid hormones (thyroxine T4 and triiodothyronine T3) - regulate basal energy expenditure and macronutrient metabolism, regulates brain and nervous system development
167
good food sources of iodine
iodize salt, egg, haddock, cheddar cheese, 1% milk, cottage cheese, yogurt, seaweed, bread
168
iodide deficiency disorders (IDD)
endemic goiter, endemic cretinism, hypothyroidism (low BMR)
169
fluoride function
development of teeth and bone; prevent bacterial and acidic erosion of enamel
170
good food sources of fluoride
tea, seafood, fluoridated drinking water, seaweed
171
fluoride deficiency symptoms
susceptibility to dental cavities > nutritional problems (can't chew)
172
toxicity of fluoride
fluorosis
173
selenium function
antioxidant function (glutathione peroxidase system, break down H2O2); conversion of T4 to T3
174
selenium deficiency
changes in thyroid metabolism, possible increased cancer risk, Keshan disease
175
Is vegetarianism a healthy lifestyle?
often lower in fat and energy than Western diets; lower risk of obesity, type II diabetes, hypertension, certain cancers; advantages: high - vitamin C, E, folate, phytochemical, fiber, Mg, K ; low - sat fat; disadvantages: low vitamin B-12, D, riboflavin, Zn, Fe, Ca, omega 3, certain EAA, energy
176
nutrient composition of vegetarian diets
plant sources of protein = low-quality protein
177
components of energy expenditure
basal metabolic rate, physical activity, thermic effect of food, adaptive thermogenesis (minor)
178
basal metabolic rate (BMR)
minimum amount of energy required in a fasting state to keep the resting body function; largest component (60-70%); post 12 hrs of fasting
179
physical activity
most variable; increase kcal needs by 25-40% above BMR
180
thermic effect of food (TEF)
5-10% of kcal; energy used to digest, absorb, transport, store, and metabolize; highest for protein
181
adaptive thermogenesis
minor component; non-voluntary physical activity - fidgeting, shivering, holding body upright
182
hunger
physiological drive to find and eat food; control by internal mechanisms
183
satiety
occurs after eating has stopped; promoted by sensory aspects of food, knowledge food has been consumed, chewing, expansion of stomach and intestines; effects of digestion, absorption, and metabolism; decrease in ghrelin
184
satiation
causes us to stop eating; CCK, glucagon-like peptide-1, PYY
185
ghrelin (hormone)
acts in the hypothalamus; promotes intake: increase appetite, increases smell sensitivity, promotes energy storage
186
leptin (hormone)
acts in the hypothalamus; signals brain to decrease intake; rises when body fat increases; leptin deficiency = constant hunger
187
body mass index (BMI)
linked to body fat content, body fat influences health more than weight, linked to longevity, easy to asses, applies to both men and women
188
factors including body weight and composition
genetics and environment
189
role of genetics on body weight and composition
40-70%; impacts body type, metabolic rate, factors influencing hunger and satiety
190
set point theory
genetically predetermined body weight or fat content that is closely regulated; does not effects explain obesity epidemic
191
factors that encourage excess body fat
aging, female gender, high calorie diet, sedentary lifestyle, weight history, social and behavioral factors, certain medications, geographic location, genetic characteristics
192
key features of a sound weight-loss program
1. control energy intake
2. perform regular physical activity
3. behavior modification
193
behavior modification
chain-breaking, stimulus control, cognitive restructuring, contingency management, self-monitoring
194
risk associated with fad diets
often unhealthy and unrealistic; monotonous, restrictive; rarely long-lasting weight loss, may eliminate essential nutrients; can lead to disordered eating
195
body fat distribution and its role in health
android (abdominal) obesity is related to CVD, hypertension, type II diabetics; >40 in males, >35 in females;
196
anorexia nervosa
weight loss, difficulty maintaining appropriate body weight, often a distorted body image
197
bulimia nervosa
cycle of binging and compensatory behavior to undo the binge
198
binge eating disorder
most common in the US; eating large amounts of food frequently, rapidly, and until feeling uncomfortably full, even when not hungry
