final Flashcards

Question

Mesoamerica

Answer 1

- "Middle America" spans central Mexico and parts of Central America, as defined by anthropologist Paul Kirchoff in 1942. - It includes two major culture areas: the central Highlands (Oaxaca, Valley of Mexico) and the Maya subarea (Gulf Coast). - Home to millions of indigenous peoples, descendants of ancient cultures like the Olmec, Maya, Aztec, etc., who speak diverse languages such as Mayan, Nahuatl, Zapotec, and more. -Environmentally heterogenous

Answer 2

maize, beans and squash

Answer 3

Mesoamerica, Highland South America, Eastern North America, Amazon Basin

Answer 4

Tehuacan Valley project studied dry caves in Puebla Basin in semiarid highlands

Answer 5

Earliest complex society in Mesoamerica Nearly 2000 years after the development of the earliest civilizations in the Old World Appeared in the Gulf Coast – not the central Highlands -Known for their colossal stone heads and monolithic thrones carved from basalt blocks -Olmec were likely not a state-level society, but a series of chiefdoms

Answer 6

San Lorenzo (ca. 1400 – 900 BCE) La Venta (ca. 900 – 400 BCE) Tres Zapotes

Answer 7

Monuments crafted in honor of Olmec rulers Enormous helmeted heads – almost certainly portraits of rulers, dressed as ballplayer

Answer 8

Large rectangular basalt blocks, flat topped, and carved in low relief -Functioned as material symbols of power for rulers and were likely literal ‘seats of power’

Answer 9

Pillars of stone, carved in low relief Stelae are generally introduced later than colossal heads, altars, or other free-standing sculptures Various designs include human and animal forms and abstract motifs Began as simple representation of figures towards representation of historical events, particularly acts that legitimize rulers

Answer 10

Olmec rulers associated with “werejaguar” imagery Motif – almond shaped eyes, a downturned open mouth, and cleft head One accepted origin myth of kingship is that werejaguar is the result of mating between human woman and jaguar Baby is part human, part jaguar

Answer 11

Long associated with rain, fertility and shamanic power Jaguar move in water, on land, in trees Like jaguar, shaman move between the other worlds of the dead, the living and the deities New rulers were shaman-kings with supernatural powers Shamanic rituals involved blood- letting and human sacrifice, and these were key rituals for Mesoamerican societies

Answer 12

Highly polished magnetite, pyrite, hematite, ilmenite can reflect images Symbols of high status and restricted ritual paraphernalia Served as portals to a realm that can be seen but not interacted with Earliest mirrors pre-date Olmec Olmec mirrors are usually concave – reflect an inverted and reversed image

Answer 13

Earliest of the major Olmec centers Strategic location for trade within and beyond Olmec region Produced widely trade carved gray pottery Site core covers 55 hectares with additional 500 hectare outlying settlement Initial construction was 20 stone-lined and waterproof depressions to collect rainwater (lagunas) Ridges constructed around central monumental earthen platform Pyramid and probable ball court also built on platform 124 sculptures including several Colossal Heads

Answer 14

Elite residence with earthen walls and floors, plastered with sand stained by hematite Massive columns (4 m tall) carved out of basalt supported perishable roof L-shaped basalt benches Some walls made using rammed earth technique while others had masonry and some wattle-and-daub

Answer 15

writing-tablet-sized block of serpentine with 62 characters Found in 2006 via bulldozer in mining operation

Answer 16

Major regional capital for 5-6 centuries, and grew to ~ 200 hectares Population estimate impossible due to modern construction Site core is a 1.6 km-long north-south aligned complex of buildings centered on a 34-m-high pyramid Structures are aligned 8° W of true north Residential and public buildings with formal plazas to south and restricted spaces to the north

Answer 17

Three rectangular mosaics (pavements) 4.5 x 6 m consisting of green serpentine blocks Blocks arranged horizontally to form patterns that have been various interpretations Bar-and-dot motifs Olmec Dragon Abstract jaguar mask Symbolic map of La Venta Mosaics not intended for display buried under layers of colored clay and meters of earth Dozens of caches of jade, polished stone mirrors, and serpentine blocks

Answer 18

Tabasco region of Mexico (just to the east of the Olmec heartland) found via LiDAR by Takeshi Inomata in 2020. A Maya site – the oldest monumental construction ever found in the Maya area (1000 – 800 BCE) and one of the largest ever found in Mesoamerica

Answer 19

Fundamentally changing our understanding of tropical lowland civilizations Remote sensing technology (also used to reveal Angkor) that allows archaeologists to see through the dense tropical rainfores

Answer 20

Southern Highland -Lowlands are divided into Southern (Peten) and Northern (Yucatan) lowlands

Answer 21

Late Archaic Period: ca. 12,000 BCE – 1,200 BCE) Preclassic (or Formative Period): ca. 1000 BCE – 250 CE Classic: ca. 250 – 900 CE Early Postclassic: ca. 900 – 1200 CE Late Postclassic: ca. 1200 – 1521 CE Spanish Colonial Period: ca. 1525 CE – ~ 1700 C

Answer 22

Domesticated maize evidence in pollen in soil cores as early as 3000 BCE Earliest Maya villages date to around same time as Olmec. Earliest known ceremonial/public architecture is at Ceibal in Guatemala, found by Takeshi Inomata

Answer 23

Site core includes platforms on natural rises surrounded by low lying swamp (bajos). The largest pyramids ever built by the Mayas. Multi-terraced platforms topped by three buildings – “triadic groups” Large structure flanked by two smaller structures facing into a shared courtyard. Stucco relief on La Danta shows earliest known images of Popul Vuh Extensive network of road

Answer 24

Evidence for Kingship -Murals from Preclassic site San Bartolo, ca. 58 km SE of El Mirador – 400 – 200 BCE Depict mythical origin story leading to seating of ruler on a throne wearing regalia Nine mythological figures Maize God (center) with head that replicates foliation of corn plant Sets the stage for apparent coronation of ruler, likely named in accompanying text Text has not been deciphered but one glyph “ajaw,” meaning lord or king can be rea

Answer 25

Located in northern Belize At 50 BCE, was a small, modest fishing and trading community Within two generations, transformed into larger center Central precinct becomes ceremonial center, with giant stucco deity masks flanking pyramid staircases Then, suddenly stops, and town becomes fishing center agai

Answer 26

- The Maya cosmos consists of three worlds: the Underworld, the Middle world, and the Upper world. - The Underworld comprises nine watery levels inhabited by gods, demons, and ancestors. - The Middle world, where humans reside, is depicted as a stony realm floating on the back of a caiman or turtle, while the Upper world is the sky supported by four gods at the cardinal directions. These realms are interconnected by a world tree, and the caiman is significant as it sheds blood, symbolizing rain.

Answer 27

Autosacrifice ensured the success of the living. Symbolized the renewal of divine energy and continuation of life Autosacrifice not just practiced by kings and queens but was practiced by lots of people and in lots of different contexts. Bloodletting common across Mesoamerica

Answer 28

- Hieroglyphic script crucial for recording genealogies, king-lists, conquests, and rituals, serving as a vital historical record. - The Calendar Round incorporates a 260-day sacred almanac and a 365-day solar year, functioning as interconnected gears to mark time. - The Long Count calendar, comprising Bak'tuns, K'atuns, Tuns, Uinals, and Kins, culminates in a date format like 13.0.0.0.0, with a cycle of 5,200 years, starting mythically on August 11, 3114 BCE, and the last cycle ending on December 21.

Answer 29

20-base system (vigesimal system) Includes a 0 - Three symbols

Answer 30

Writing identified by Spanish Bishop Diego de Landa and numerous glyphs recorded by early explorers and archaeologists

Answer 31

Work by early epigraphers including Yuri Knorosov and Tatiana Proskouriakoff led the way to decipherment Knorosov determined it was syllabic Proskourikoff observed glyphs form patterns that marked events (births, accession, and death of rulers)

Answer 32

Texts written on bark paper, folded Script painted by scribes using red, black, yellow ink and Maya blue Jaguar skin covers Only 4 books remain Burned by Bishop Landa as idol worship in 1562 Mainly histories of elite succession, political interaction, sacred and mathematical information (astronomy and astrology)

Answer 33

a sharp divide between elites and commoner

Answer 34

divine lord

Answer 35

subservient lord or regional governor

Answer 36

- The ballgame was a significant ritual in Maya culture, played on specialized ballcourts found in most Maya cities. - Players enacted deeds of Maya gods in a ritualized drama using a solid rubber ball, approximately 25 cm in diameter and weighing around 9 lbs. - The game involved hitting the ball with body parts such as thighs and shoulders, but not hands or feet, and bouncing it off the sides of the court. Some ballcourts post-700 CE featured stone rings, with winning achieved by bouncing the ball through the ring, although winning wasn't the primary objective. Today, there's a revival of the ball game among descendant communities, with notable ballcourts at sites like Copan and rings at Chichen Itza.

Answer 37

neighborhood head

Answer 38

- One of the greatest Classic period cities, located in Guatemala, known by its ancient name Yax Mutal, with a ruling dynasty named Mutal. - At its zenith, the city boasted a population estimated between 50,000 to 100,000 people. - Its layout centered on the Great Plaza, a vast public space surrounded by temples, the North acropolis housing royal tombs, and the South acropolis serving as a palace complex. Causeways connected the Great Plaza to other monumental complexes and residences. The city's infrastructure included the impressive Temple IV, towering at 70 meters high, as well as earthworks, dams, reservoirs, marketplaces, neighborhood temples, and administrative buildings, with the city's population sprawling over 452 km2.

Answer 39

- A powerful capital located in the western lowlands of Chiapas, Mexico, which experienced significant growth during the reign of Lord Pakal I ("Shield") between 615-683 CE. - While smaller in size compared to Tikal, this city boasts some of the most exceptional architecture, sculpture, roof combs, and bas-relief carvings found anywhere in the Maya world. - Notably, toward the end of Pakal's reign, he constructed the Temple of the Inscriptions, which served as his tomb, marking a significant architectural and cultural achievement for the city.

Answer 40

- The city features a unique staircase descending from the floor of the upper temple to the base of the pyramid, leading to Lord Pakal's tomb. - At the bottom of the stairs lies a chamber containing the skeletons of six young adults, believed to have been sacrificed for Pakal's burial. - Beyond the sacrificial chamber lies Pakal's funerary crypt, where he was buried. The walls of the tomb are adorned with images of his ancestors, while his genealogy is inscribed on the temple walls, serving to legitimize his right to rule.

Answer 41

- Lord Pakal's tomb, discovered between 1948-1952, ranks among Mesoamerica's greatest archaeological finds. - It features a stone sarcophagus carved from a single limestone block, with a lid depicting Pakal caught in the jaws of a skeletal serpent, symbolizing his passage into the Otherworld. - Within the tomb, treasures include a jade mask, ear spools, and jade placed in his mouth and hands, showcasing the richness of his burial offerings and the importance of jade in Maya culture.

Answer 42

San José Mogote is considered to be the oldest permanent agricultural village in the Oaxaca Valley and probably the first settlement in the area to use pottery.

Answer 43

- Between 800 and 830 CE, Mesoamerica faced a tumultuous period marked by the halt in pyramid construction, decline in elite goods production, and social upheaval. - Factors like high populations, sustainability issues, drought, warfare, and political instability contributed to this unrest, leading to the abandonment of divine kingship and major social restructuring. - While some centers were swiftly abandoned, most experienced a gradual exodus, with elites and the poorest leaving first, followed by middle-level families. By the 10th century, most lowland cities were deserted, and populations migrated northward, leading to the rise of city-states like Chichen Itza, Uxmal, and Ek Balam.

Answer 44

diverse ecological zones, fertile river valleys with wide, flat alluvial plains Farmers irrigated crops in river valleys using shallow well

Answer 45

- San Jose Mogote, the homeland of the Zapotec people, witnessed the emergence of early public buildings by 1150-850 BCE, signaling social differentiation. - These structures, aligned 8 degrees west of north, were raised on low platforms with pine posts, plastered floors, walls, and central storage pits filled with lime. - The population grew to 2,000 by 850 BCE, ruled by chiefs with authority over neighboring regions, and reached 3,500 across 85 villages by 700 BCE. - Mound 1 at San Jose Mogote, towering 15m high, became an elite residence by 700 BCE. - By 500 BCE, San Jose Mogote had the earliest known writing, seen in inscriptions on stone slabs, including the name of a sacrificial victim.

Answer 46

- The Zapotec city of Monte Albán became the capital of an expansive state. - Purpose-built between 500 and 400 BCE, it experienced rapid population growth. - Monte Albán featured a Main Plaza created by leveling a hilltop, evolving into a complex with palaces, temples, and plazas serving various functions, including ritual and commercial purposes. - The city boasted roads, defensive walls, and water-control systems, along with 15 residential subdivisions, each with its own plaza. - By 500 CE, Monte Albán was the most populous and powerful center in the Valley of Oaxaca, with up to 30,000 people living within 6.5 km of the site center.

Answer 47

Pentagonal with distinct point, often described as “arrowhead” shaped Skewed 45 degrees east from the general site axis Façade includes low-relief sculptures that depict glyphic representations of hills, many with heads suspended below them Possibly “conquest slabs” with named hills representing cities and the heads indicating defeated rulers Like danzantes, conquest slabs were reused – incorporated into three different versions of Building J between 200 and 700 CE Monte Albán largely abandoned by about 900 CE

Answer 48

- Teotihuacán, meaning "the place where the gods were born" in Nahuatl, has been the focus of research for over a century, with significant archaeological programs in the 1960s. - Occupation of the area began in the Early Formative period (2000-1000 BCE), with many significant towns established by 500 BCE. - Between 100 BCE and 100 CE, the population of the Valley of Mexico sharply declined, leading up to 50,000 people to resettle at Teotihuacán. - While Cuicuilco was likely the earliest urban center in the region, it was destroyed by a volcano eruption, making it slightly too early to explain the boom of Teotihuacán. Popocateptl's eruption in the 1st century CE is a more plausible explanation.

Answer 49

Oldest of the monumental buildings at Teotihuacan, dated to 100 CE Seven versions of the pyramid Rich offerings interred with each construction, including human sacrifices Final structure (400 CE) is 43 meter high A tunnel has recently been discovered running beneath the pyramid

Answer 50

- Teotihuacán's Pyramid of the Sun, towering 225m across and 75m tall, holds the title of the tallest structure in ancient Mesoamerica. - In 1971, workers discovered a tunnel beneath the pyramid while installing a sound and light show. The tunnel, measuring 100m long and located 6m below the pyramid's surface, was initially believed to be natural lava tubes but recent findings suggest it's man-made. - This tunnel terminates in a cloverlike arrangement of four chambers, speculated to contain offerings and potentially royal burials, symbolizing the underworld in Mesoamerican belief systems.

Answer 51

- Part of the Ciudadela, the Temple of the Feathered Serpent is a central feature covering 16 hectares with a large plaza accommodating up to 100,000 people. - The temple showcases Talud-tablero style architecture, depicting the undulating body of the feathered serpent Quetzalcoatl (Aztec) and Kukulkan (Maya). - Mass burials surrounding the temple contain the remains of 200 sacrificed individuals, with graves holding 18 male and female sacrificial victims each, accompanied by weapons. Most victims were likely locals, brought to Teotihuacan as adolescents.

Answer 52

Abundant trade, particularly in obsidian, was a hallmark of Teotihuacán, with control over sources including distinctive green obsidian from Pachuca. Craftsmanship extended to shell-working, ceramics, stone-working, and more, with Teotihuacán's distinctive tripod dishes traded as far as the Maya lowlands, often exchanged for marine species, shells, and tropical bird feathers, while craft-workers resided in apartment compounds.

Answer 53

Teotihuacán's decline, around 550-575 CE, is evidenced by burnt stucco and charcoal along the Avenue of the Dead, where all buildings were scorched, with over 50% of temples affected, while fewer than 15% of apartment compounds burned. This suggests a resident revolt targeting symbols of rulership, leading to a significant population drop to 20,000-40,000 people, with some surrounding settlements thriving. Later Aztecs revered Teotihuacán's ruins, integrating objects from the city into their own capital, Tenochtitlan.

Answer 54

- The Aztec civilization emerged following the decline of Tula, with powerful lords claiming Toltec ancestry leading small kingdoms. - These kingdoms eventually coalesced into the Aztec Empire, ruling from the 14th to early 16th centuries and comprising various Nahuatl-speaking peoples such as the Acolhua, Tepanec, Chalca, and Mexica. - Around 1325 CE, the Mexica settled on islands in Lake Texcoco, founding the neighboring towns of Tenochtitlan and Tlateloco. - Initially serving as mercenaries under Lord Tezozomoc of the Tepanec kingdom, the Aztecs lacked a king (tlatoani) until 1426 CE, when ruler Itzcoatl and advisor Tlacaelel formed the "Triple Alliance" with the cities of Tlacopan and Texcoco. - Tenochtitlan became the center of an expansive empire enforced through military power, reaching its zenith under ruler Ahuitzotl (1486-1502), who presided over an empire that stretched from the highlands to the lowlands, affecting over 5 million people. - Despite its power, the Aztec Empire met its downfall in 1521 when Spanish conquistadors and indigenous allies overthrew the Aztec, leading to the fall of Tenochtitlan and the establishment of Mexico City.

Answer 55

- Spanish conquistadors, like Bernal Diaz in 1519, provided eyewitness accounts of Tenochtitlan's heyday, describing it as larger than Seville and better planned than many European capitals. - Tenochtitlan was a sophisticated and cosmopolitan city with flexible social, political, and economic organization, capable of integrating large numbers of outsiders, including merchants, pilgrims, foreigners, and laborers, in addition to its already substantial population. - The city boasted thousands of acres of meticulously planned swamp gardens called chinampas, intersected with canals, drawing comparisons to Venice. Originally, it consisted of two autonomous communities: Tenochtitlán and Tlatelolco.

Answer 56

- Located on the east side of a vast plaza measuring 460m x 460m, capable of accommodating 10,000 people, stood a stepped pyramid reaching 30.7m high. - This pyramid featured two stairways leading to two shrines, one dedicated to Huitzilopochtli (red shrine) and the other to Tlaloc (blue shrine). - At the pyramid's base lay an enormous altar depicting the dismembered goddess Coyolxauhqui, killed by Huitzilopochtli. - Over generations, rulers built larger pyramids over earlier structures, with at least six earlier phases observed. - The site contained numerous offerings and caches, including items brought as tribute or trade from distant regions of Mesoamerica, often found within cavities, stone urns, or boxes made of slabs, deposited under floors, in platforms, stairways, and temples.

Answer 57

(skull rack)- The Aztecs utilized a wooden rack or palisade known as a "Skull Rack" for the display of human and animal skulls, typically from war captives or sacrificial victims. - Aztec warfare involved the capture of enemy warriors to serve as sacrificial victims, with the Spanish estimating that the Great Skull Rack at Templo Mayor held between 60,000 and 136,000 skulls. - Sacrificial rituals were performed to feed or offer helpers to the gods and repay an eternal debt of blood and life owed to them for bringing life to the world. This included the ritual of "The Flowery Death," where prisoners were sacrificed dressed and painted in god's regalia.

Answer 58

- Tlatelolco Market stood as the most significant market in the Aztec Empire, with over 20,000 people visiting daily. - Goods for sale encompassed a wide range including food, textiles, pottery, and even slaves, with standardized prices and judges to settle trade disputes. - Various currencies were accepted, including cacao beans, cotton capes, shells, gold dust, greenstone beads, bronze axes, and bronze bells, while long-distance traders known as pochteca brought luxuries such as jade, feathers, and cacao from across the empire.

Answer 59

- The Aztecs perceived time cyclically, guided by the movements of celestial bodies. - Their calendar system included a 365-day secular calendar marking seasons and market days, alongside a 260-day ritual calendar consisting of 20 "weeks" of 13 days each. - Every 52 years, the two calendars synchronized, believed to symbolize the end of time according to Aztec beliefs, as depicted in their creation legends which speak of four preceding suns and the current era as the "fifth sun." - According to myth, the world of the Fourth Sun was destroyed by a flood, leading to the emergence of the Fifth Sun through a sacrificial act where two gods transformed into the sun and the moon. - However, the Fifth Sun was considered doomed to cyclical extinction, with continuity ensured only through nourishing the gods with blood and sacrifice.

Answer 60

- In 1519, Hernan Cortes led an unauthorized expedition to Veracruz with a small force, including men, horses, and cannons, defying the orders of the Spanish Crown. - Cortes burned his ships to prevent his men from deserting him, then marched inland, recruiting indigenous allies such as the Tlaxcalans along the way. - Despite warnings from the Aztec ruler, Motecuhzoma Xocoyotzin, Cortes proceeded, eventually being welcomed into Tenochtitlan by Motecuhzoma himself, who saw the encounter as an opportunity to assess the intentions and capabilities of the Europeans. - Cortes and his men exploit Motecuhzoma, placing him under house arrest, which ultimately leads to his death during the chaos following the massacre of Aztec religious observers by the Spanish. - It remains uncertain whether Motecuhzoma was killed by Aztec nobles or Spanish forces. - Outnumbered by the Aztecs, the Spanish are driven out of Tenochtitlan by Cuitlahuac, Motecuhzoma's successor, during the "Noche Triste" (Sad Night). - The Spanish introduced smallpox and other diseases to which the indigenous populations had no immunity, leading to the deaths of Cuitlahuac and tens of thousands of people. - In 1521, Cortes and tens of thousands of his indigenous allies return to lay siege to Tenochtitlan.

Answer 61

Individual kingdoms in different river valleys Relied on maritime resources and irrigation agriculture Origins explained by environmental circumscription: Populations were increasing Differences in wealth emerged Competition over limited arable land Military/ritual rulers conquer neighbours and take their surplus as tribute States emerge controlling several river watersheds from large primary center

Answer 62

Dominated by two large platforms called huacas (40 m tall) Huacas made from sun-dried mud brick (adobe) Brightly painted murals with molded adobe images on walls

Answer 63

- Moche society was governed by various elites who employed multiple strategies of control. - Military force and conquest were utilized to dominate other valleys and prevent incursions from rival groups. - Strategic political marriages were arranged to forge alliances. - Economic dominance was established through the construction of irrigation systems, the establishment of long-distance trade routes, and the development of food storage mechanisms. - A potent ideology, manifested through public performances and ceremonial regalia symbolizing divine kingship, served to connect the ruler with the forces of nature and the supernatural realm.

Answer 64

Maker’s marks may represent mit’a tax provided by different kin groups Kin groups later called Ayllus More than 100 different signs on the bricks Bricks bearing same sign cluster in segments of structures Interpreted as sections constructed by wo

Answer 65

40 m high 340x160m at base Pyramid used as platform for royal palace and necropolis Domestic refuse and burials found on Huaca del Sol Much of pyramid was destroyed by Spanish diverting streams to wash out gold artefacts (2788 kg of gold

Answer 66

Huaca de la Luna is smaller pyramid (30 m high) A temple complex, composed of smaller buildings topped by large plazas. Well-preserved elaborate murals Numerous sacrificial offerings of humans and other animals Sacrifical victims were both locals and foreigners

Answer 67

Moche reached greatest influence 500 CE Moche pottery displaces local pottery styles Little interaction between north and south Different political structures in each North had many subject or autonomous kingdoms South were ruled indirectly through conquest and through conquered rulers to help govern their people Moche also occupied off-shore islands (some they mined for guano fertilizer

Answer 68

Four tombs recovered in total First of these is called the Lord of Sipán Tomb was multi-levelled, constructed within adobe blocks of the huaca Lord of Sipán at the center of the huaca, laid to rest in a coffin, accompanied by surrounding coffins with three women, two men, and a child Women believed to wives of the lord, men warriors Also includes a sacrificed dog and llama Draped in metal – gold, silver, and copper with valuable stone incrustations, a mask, headdress, chest-piece, necklaces, and rings in ears and nose.

Answer 69

150 km north of Moche Valley Sipán’s pyramids are enormous Badly looted and much lost to private collectors

Answer 70

Archaeologist Chris Donnan believes the man is the warrior-priest in the Presentation Theme

Answer 71

Archaeologist Chris Donnan believes the man is the warrior-priest in the Presentation Theme Buried with gold mask, lamp-shaped sceptre or war club (also shown in the scene) Dog in tomb may be spotted dog

Answer 72

- Three noblemen from the period 450-550 CE were interred with small copper statues representing them, a rarity in Moche burials. - These individuals were notably taller than the average population. - The most prominent among them was buried with a ceramic bat, a sacred animal to the Moche, along with weapons, a copper funerary mask adorned with gold, silver, and shell elements, and metalworking tools. Additionally, sacrificial victims, both male and female, and llamas were placed nearby in the tomb.

Answer 73

designs of animals, birds, spiders, marine mammals, etc. and geometric shapes Created by over-turning dark stones from desert floor to expose underlying whitish-pink sand

Answer 74

Same time as the Moche South coast river valleys have smaller drainages and smaller populations Early villages in oases and areas with surface runoff for irrigation By 500 CE people tapped aquifers, dug tunnels to irrigate farmlands with spiral shaped tunnels from surface – called puquios Supported large population densitie

Answer 75

- The Nazca Lines were formed by overturning dark stones from the desert floor to reveal the underlying whitish-pink sand. - Recent research indicates that some lines extend for up to 20 kilometers in straight lines, potentially serving as pathways to areas of water. - These lines mirror designs found on pottery and textiles, although they are not aligned with astronomical observations. Recent studies suggest that the lines formed part of a sacred landscape where rituals were performed, including water rites and fertility ceremonies, with offerings made at various locations along the lines.

Answer 76

Tiwanaku and Wari Some overlap with Moche Peak in Middle Horizon

Answer 77

Founded on Altiplano near Lake Titicaca good for camelid herding 3800 m asl From 375 to 700 CE supported over 20,000 people By 600 CE trading with southern coast by llama caravan 650 CE built major shrine on the Isla del Sol

Answer 78

- The ancient Andean agricultural technique known as sukakollas involved cultivating crops in raised fields situated in lakeside marshes and along canals. - These raised fields were constructed by layering stone cobbles, clay, three sheets of gravel, and topsoil, serving to prevent potatoes from freezing and becoming waterlogged. - The low areas between the raised fields were filled with lake water, creating a highly productive agricultural system that yielded approximately 400% more potatoes compared to plots on hillsides.

Answer 79

is a low platform mound with a large courtyard (120 m x 130 m), surrounded by high stone walls

Answer 80

creator god holding staffs that end in snake heads

Answer 81

Carved stone “Gateway of the Sun” (not in its original place) that depicts Viracocha- creator god holding staffs that end in snake heads

Answer 82

is also a large monumental platform, ca. 260 m x 200 m along sides and 16.5 m high Terraced platform with massive, stepped retaining walls, with sunken court at center surrounded by residences of priests During rains, water would rush out of the courts and onto the terraces, filling a large moat that surrounded ceremonial precinct

Answer 83

- The Wari civilization, contemporaneous with Tiwanaku, shared similar iconography and art styles, including representations of anthropomorphic felines, eagles, and serpents, and a reverence for a Viracocha-like deity. - By 800 CE, the Wari Empire had expanded from the Moche area on the Northern coast down to the Nazca area and into the highlands, covering a vast territory. - Centered around the Ayacucho region, the empire's capital city, Huari (Wari), was founded around 400 CE but rose to prominence by 550 CE, boasting a population of 70,000 people.

Answer 84

Extensive trade in textiles, copper objects, pottery, wooden objects and gold with southern coast for shell and fish Coastal trade by llama caravans Trade with tropical forest to east for birds and medicines Established colonies along trade routes and by military conquest

Answer 85

Economic data not kept via written records, but through a system of knotted cords called khipu (used later by Inka)

Answer 86

A fortified settlement placed by Wari in 600 CE on a sacred mesa, with only a single, heavily fortified trail leading to the summit Essentially inaccessible – but occupied by Wari nobles Thought to be a political statement – build a colony deep within Tiwanaku territory 1,000 occupants Settlement lasted for four centuries

Answer 87

- The Sicán culture flourished in the Lambayeque Valley after the decline of the Moche civilization, known for their advanced metallurgy and extensive trade networks. - Sicán rulers enjoyed immense wealth, as seen in the lavish burial of a mummified ruler adorned with precious stones and elaborate gold masks, alongside sacrificial victims and abundant grave goods. - However, the Sicán state was eventually conquered by the Chimú empire in 1375 CE, becoming part of the expanding empire.

Answer 88

- The city center of Chan Chan comprised nine major walled compounds, spanning six square kilometers, each serving as a palace for the ruler and constructed using mit’a labor. - These compounds, surrounded by 10-meter-high adobe brick walls, were not for defense but for privacy and protection from ocean winds, featuring lavishly decorated residential rooms with cane-framed roofs covered in earth and grass. - After the ruler's death, the compounds became their burial place, while approximately 6,000 nobles resided in 30 smaller compounds, and 26,000 artisans and their families lived in small abode and reed-mat houses within the city, with farmers and fishermen residing outside its borders.

Answer 89

Chimor also rises with collapse of Moche in the Moche River Valley Expanded irrigation in the valley, constructed terraces and large storage reservoirs One channel between river valleys was 32 km long Greatly increased productivit

Answer 90

- The Inca established the first empire to unite the southern and northern regions of the Andean world. - They referred to their domain as the "land of the four quarters" or Tawantinsuyu, representing the four regions of the empire.

Answer 91

Created a network of roads to move troops and material goods Densely packed areas had formal roads between 4.5 and 7.5 m across and up to 24 m in places Rural roads were marked pathways. Chimor broke power of conquered groups by resettling them in other parts of the state Practice later adopted by the Inka Chimor conquered by the Inka 1462-1470

Answer 92

Inka are chosen people of Inti (essence of the sun)

Answer 93

transform Cuzco into ‘navel of universe’, to conquer others, and to spread civilization

Answer 94

Small villages organized into kin groups called ayllus Ayllus held land in common Ayllu leaders reciprocate labour to one another to distribute resources

Answer 95

Early Inka war leaders were likely petty war leaders called sinchi Sinchi were elected officials who were measured by success in warfare

Answer 96

Small ethnic group of about 40,000 people (1% of population of the empire) Created a great state through conquest Built empire that governed 6-10 million peopl

Answer 97

1410 CE a sinchi, called Viracocha Inka, came to power Claimed to be a living god, descendent of the sun-god Inti New religious cult worshipping sun-god Inti emerges Ruler of state called Sapa Inka Ruler married his full-blooded sister in order to produce heir that descends from IntI

Answer 98

nka under siege by Chanca (neighbours) c. 1440 and Virochocha leaves Cusco His son, named Kusi Inka Yupanki, has dream that he will rise to power and conquer many nations Inspires him to defeat the Chanca Becomes Sapa Inka and was renamed Pachacuti ‘He who remakes the world’ Transforms kingdom of Cusco into an empire

Answer 99

Pachacuti transforms the state, including an age-old Andean ancestor cult and associated laws of split inheritance Title passes from father to son, but not his wealth or land Each new ruler inherited large labour force Had to build his own palace and create his own wealth through farming and conquest

Answer 100

(meaning ‘your turn’ to provide for the state) Everyone between 15 and 50 had to provide labour for the state and males had to provide military service Built roads, bridges, terraces, supplied food, cloth for armies/rulers

Answer 101

The Inca Empire called Tawantinsuyu by its subjects was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America

Answer 102

Inka used mitma system of colonization: shifted troublesome populations from one area to another to prevent uprisings Local nobles were used as local governors so long as they were loyal Formed a secondary type of noble in Inka society

Answer 103

- Inti was the patron god of the Inca Empire, and a temple complex named Coricancha ("sun house") was dedicated to him. - According to Spanish descriptions, Coricancha was likened to a garden of golden plants, featuring replicas of maize with silver stems and golden ears at the center of the temple. - The temple also housed a room with an immense gold image of the sun, adorned with semi-precious stones.

Answer 104

Site between two mountains overlooking Urubamba River Residence for ruler Pachacuti and entourage in dry season Hard to access, removable bridges, single entry Probably housed 500 - 750 people at one time Terraces for agriculture (including orchids) Three primary features, including the Intihuatana (hitching post of the sun)

Answer 105

Series of administrative centers along the roadways about a day’s walk apart Contained supplies, accommodation for government officials, seats of local government, watchtowers, craft production Housed chasquis

Answer 106

Elaborate system of knots and coloured strings used to codify laws, provide data for tax inspectors, ensure social conformity Kept by specialists called Khipucamayocs Recited information to officials

Answer 107

Francisco Pizarro arrived during civil war 1532 Empire was becoming large and difficult to govern Large number of nobility dedicated to looking after mummies Squabbles over succession Communication across vast empire was problematic Smallpox ravaging its way through population from earlier Spanish contact in Panama

Answer 108

Sapa Inka Wayna Kapac dies of smallpox in 1525 His sons Atahualpa and Huascar were fighting over succession Atahualpa wins Pizarro arrived with handful of men in 1532, under the guise that he was a diplomat Atahualpa meets Pizarro for peaceful meeting at Cajamarca Atahualpa does not take the Spanish force seriously Captured by Pizarro

Answer 109

Spanish demanded a room filled with gold for ransom Gold paid is estimated at $50 million Ransom was paid, Pizarro had Atahualpa killed anyways

final Flashcards

(136 cards)