Final

Question 1

What is international security?

Answer 1

The amalgamation of measures taken by states, IOs and other actors that affect the mutual survival and safety including military action and diplomatic agreements
An issue at the core of security is political violence

Question 2

Describe the typology of political violence

Answer 2

State vs non state
Perpetrator vs target

Target:state perp:state = interstate war
Target:non state perp:state = state repression, genocide, ethnic cleansing
Target:state perp:non state = organized crime, military coup, mass protests, civil war, terrorism, political assassination
Target:non state perp:non state = inter communal violence, political assassination

Question 3

What are interests and national interests

Answer 3

What actors want to achieve through political action: their preferences over outcomes that might result from their political choices
Interests attributed to the state itself, usually security and power

Question 4

Rational actor approaches to decision making = assumptions?

Answer 4

Actors are purposive: they behave with the intention of producing a desired result
Actors adopt strategies to obtain desired outcomes given what they believe to be the interests and likely actions of others
Rationality refers to the instrumental process of decision making not the goals or preferences that actors adapt to their estimates of success

Question 5

What is coercion?

Answer 5

The threat or imposition of costs to get an actor- a state, a leader of state, a terrorist group, a transnational or international organization, a private actor- to do something it does not want to do
cooperation - positive sum
barganing - negative o zero sum

Question 6

What is compellence

Answer 6

An effort to change the status quo through the threat of force
A compelling threat is used to coerce the target state into making a concession or changing policy

Question 7

What is deterrence

Answer 7

Deterrence is the art of producing in the mind of the enemy the fear to attack

An effort to preserve the status quo by threatening the other side with unacceptable costs if it seeks to alter the current relationship

Deterrence by denial
Deterrence by punishment

Rationality
Means perception and communication
Credibility

Question 8

What is nuclear deterrence theory and what are its 3 elements

Answer 8

Developed between 1952-1966 by political scientists, economists, military strategists, other scientists, mostly at RAND corporation
Driven by Cold War and fears of nuclear Armageddon
1. precarious
2. its devastating
3. mutually assured destruction

Question 9

What is a solution to deterrence credibility

Answer 9

1. Burning bridges and irrevocable commitment
2. Introduce illogic and uncertainty

Question 10

Rebellion and public goods

Answer 10

Rebel groups typically claim public good as their goals like secession, autonomy, democratization, and redistribution appearing to be the most common

Question 11

What is the rebels dilemma

Answer 11

For rebellions to successfully organize individuals have to participate
Participation is a costly
If the rebellion succeeds everyone should benefit from the system change even those who don’t participate
There is strong incentive to free ride and reap the benefits of others

This makes the rebel organization difficult

Question 12

How can you overcome the rebels dilemma?

Answer 12

Increase costs of nonparticipation
Change material incentives to participate
Ideology
Rebel institutions or self government introducing hierarchy

Question 13

How do we get from rebellion to civil conflict

Answer 13

Involves the state and at least one organized and armed non state actor
A contested incompatibility that concerns government and or territory where the use of armed force reaches a certain threshold

Question 14

Types of conflict and their goals

Answer 14

Territorial
Separatist: non state actor wants to separate a territory to form an independent state
Irredentist: non state actor wants to detach a territory from one country and reunite it with the territory of another country
Governmental
Nonstate actors try to seize control of the government

Question 15

Types of warfare

Answer 15

Conventional: military technologies between state and non state actors are symmetric. Non Tate actors can directly confront the state

Irregular: asymmetric military capabilities that privilege the state. Non state actors can challenge and harass the state but lack the capacity to confront in a direct and formal way

Symmetric and non conventional: both sides lack advanced military capabilities

Question 16

What is bargaining theory

Answer 16

It’s about how to divide the object of dispute
There is only win or lose
The existence of a bargaining range implies both players should always have an incentive to locate peaceful settlements that avoid the cost of war
independent of conflict type
neither side is assured victory

Question 17

What are the 3 solutions to the bargaining puzzle

Answer 17

1 incomplete information
Probability of winning or losing
Costs of fighting
How big is the pie
2 commitment problems
it is future proof?
3 indivisibility
All or nothing

Question 18

How to avoid war according to bargaining model

Answer 18

Raising the cost
Increasing transparency
Providing outside enforcement of commitments
Dividing apparently indivisible goods
Raising the utility of peace

Question 19

When do wars end in bargaining model?

Answer 19

Is utility of war is less than of peace
In information asymmetry: war reveals information
Commitment problem: belief that deal will stick

Question 20

What states fight over

Answer 20

Most are about Territory
National policy
Regime type

Question 21

Militarized interstate disputes

Answer 21

A set of interactions between or among nations involving
The threat to use force
The display of force
The actual use of military force

Question 22

Leaders vs national interest

Answer 22

Leaders may have private incentives that diverge from the national interest
Diversionary theory of war: war instigated by a country’s leader in order to distract its population from their domestic strife

Question 23

democratic peace theory

Answer 23

Pairs of democracies are less likely to fight than other pairs of states

Question 24

Normative explanations to democratic peace

Answer 24

Democratic norms promote compromise rather than the elimination of opponents
Non democracies exhibit norms in which political conflicts are more likely to be resolved thorough violence and coercion
To guard against exploitation and to ensure their own survival democracies employ non democratic norms in their relations with non democracies

Question 25

Institutional explanations of democratic peace

Answer 25

Democracies are characterized by institutional constraints Because wars are costly, wars are generally unpopular among publics In democracies leaders are generally more reliant on public support than non democracies are Democracies are less able to bluff because of information and audience costs

Question 26

Elements of audience costs theory

Answer 26

Domestic political audience has the means and incentives to coordinate to punish the leader Domestic actors view backing down after having made a threat as worse than conceding without having made a threat in the first place Outsiders are able to observe the possibility of domestic sanctions from backing down

Question 27

What is delegation

Answer 27

An act where one person or group called a principal relies on another person or grew up called an agent to act on the principals behalf

Question 28

Agency loss

Answer 28

Describes the difference between the perfect and actual outcome from delegation. Agency loss occurs from conflicting preferences incomplete information and lack of enforcement mechanisms

Question 29

Two main problems with principal agent

Answer 29

Adverse selection Problem: information asymmetry between agent and principal Solutions: ex ante mechanisms Screening signaling contract design Moral hazard/agency slack Problem: divergent preferences may incentivize the agent to act inappropriately Solution: ex post mechanisms Sanctions

Question 30

What is terrorism

Answer 30

Highly contested Ineluctably political in aims and motives Violent or equally important threatens violence Designed to have far reaching psychological repercussions beyond the immediate victim or target Conducted by either an organization with an identifiable chain of command or conspiratorial cell structure (whose members wear no uniform or identifying insignia) or by individuals or a small collection of individuals directly influenced motivated or inspired by the ideological aims of examples of s9me existent terrorist movement and or its leaders Perpetrated by a sub national group or non state entity Some argue that the target of violence has to be civilians or non combatants while others relax this

Question 31

Strategy vs tactic

Answer 31

Strategy: high level plan to achieve one or more goals under conditions of uncertainty and finite resources Tactic: a conceptual action implemented as one or more specific tasks

Question 32

Terrorism : attrition

Answer 32

Convince an enemy of one’s power or resolve to demonstrate capacity and resilience

Question 33

Terrorism : intimidation

Answer 33

Coerce the population by use of force in order to prevent them from siding with the enemy or coerce the population into pressuring the government to concede

Question 34

Terrorism : provocation

Answer 34

Provoke the government into an excessive reaction in order to demonstrate that the government is evil thereby garnering public support

Question 35

Terrorism : spoiling

Answer 35

Derail or prevent a peace process that embodies an unfavourable settlement by convincing the target that moderates cannot be trusted

Question 36

Terrorism : outbidding

Answer 36

Demonstrate real one to one’s own population vis a vis rivaling factions/organizations in order to gain support

Question 37

What is state repression

Answer 37

deterrence is at the core of repression The actual or threatened use of physical sanctions against an individual or organization within the territorial jurisdiction of the state for the purpose of imposing a cost on the target as well as deterring specific activities and or beliefs perceived to be challenging to government personal practices or institutions Excludes broader understandings of violence: structural, economic, social Focus on physical sanctions of personal interfaith and political rights

Question 38

Why do states respond coercively

Answer 38

Governments are motivated to remain in power They are willing to take action to increase their own strength and decrease the threat It’s just one tool

Question 39

Selectorate theory

Answer 39

Leaders care about staying in office Staying in office requires a winning coalition Winning coalition is a share of the selectorate Selectorate is a subset of all citizens In a democracy winning is half the Selectorate In an autocracy the winning coalition is very small because the Selectorate is very small Leaders with large winning coalitions are more interested in broad support of the population Leaders with small winning coalitions are more interested in keeping small circles of elites happy and the rest quiet

Question 40

Cooptation vs repression

Answer 40

It’s an alternative choice Intentional extension of benefits in exchange for loyalty Patronage Institutions that draw rivals into the regime apparatus Helps keep enemies close and anticipate and correctly estimate threats

Question 41

Repression in democracies

Answer 41

Targets: perceived outsiders and minorities are most at risk Methods: hard to detect methods less visible victims Accountability: blame shifting Delegation: outsourcing repression to militias private etc

Question 42

What is a civilian

Answer 42

Anyone who is not a member of the armed forces or of an organized armed group

Question 43

What is violence against civilians

Answer 43

Broadly any acts that though the use of force, harm, or damage civilians or civilian targets including lethal as well as non lethal forms of violence

Question 44

What is genocide

Answer 44

The promotion execution and or implied consent of sustained policies by governing elites or their agents that are intended to destroy, in whole or part, a communal political, or politicized ethnic group

Question 45

What is ethnic cleansing

Answer 45

A purposeful policy designed by one ethnic or religious group to remove by violent and terror inspiring means the civilian population of another ethnic or religious group from certain geographic areas Not recognized independent crime under international law

Question 46

What are mass killings

Answer 46

Defined as the intentional killing of a massive number of non-combatants A massive number is defined as at least 50,000 intentional deaths over the course of five years or less

Question 47

One sided violence

Answer 47

Civilians that are deliberately and directly targeted by governments or non state groups

Question 48

selective vs indiscriminate violence

Answer 48

Selective: targets are chosen on the basis of individualized suspicion Indiscriminate: targeting is not based on individualized suspicion

Question 49

What explains violence against civilians in interstate wars

Answer 49

Desperation: in protracted wars, civilian victimization is a tactic that inflicts costs on non-combatants to coerce an armed actor to cease fighting Conquer and annex: where civilians share nationality of the enemy in areas a belligerent wishes to annex, violence against civilians is intended to crush local subversion and force mass eviction

Question 50

What are the three warfare strategies in violence against civilians

Answer 50

Draining the sea Purposive oh employed military strategy to physically disrupt if not eliminate civilian supports if the enemy Control coercion punishment Shape civilian behaviour indirectly through violence that encourages denunciations and collaboration from oppressed civilians and deters collaboration with the enemy Selective violence Collaboration and denunciation provides information used to selectively target civilians Controlled areas experience more selective violence

Question 51

The commanders dilemma

Answer 51

Create a fighting force that is capable of great unhesitatingly violence Maintain control over the level forms and targeting of violence Armed group institutions can help align preferences of combatants and commanders Political education and strong consistent institutions helps explains restraint exercised by armed groups

Question 52

What is a cyber attack

Answer 52

Deliberate actions to alter disrupt deceive degrade or destroy computer systems or networks or the information and or programs resident in or transiting these systems of networks

Question 53

Key features of cyber attacks

Answer 53

No direct attack on target: damage caused by attack on computer/information No physical limitation: one attack can reach multiple targets Attacks by exploiting vulnerabilities in systems Use and lose code

Question 54

A typology of cyber attacks

Answer 54

Availability attacks: aimed at affecting the availability of a network Confidentiality attacks: attacks aimed at gaining access to networks in order to monitor activities and withdraw information Data integrity attacks: aimed at gaining access to networks in order to manipulate or sabotage information

Question 55

3 conventional beliefs about cyber warfare

Answer 55

1. Asymmetry Low entry barrier for weak actors Offensive capabilities are easy to procure and open source intelligence social media are readily available for all actors Anonymity can protect weak actors Advanced industrial eco monies are more online and this have more vulnerabilities 2. Offensive dominance Cyber attacks are easier than cyber defence Few security considerations in the design of the internet With growing networks offensive capabilities grow faster than defensive capabilities Attacks will be faster than defence can detect and patch vulnerabilities 3. Deterrence failure Nuclear deterrence works because attacks fear counter attacks Attribution of attacks extremely slow and complex If attribution is not accurate, assured retaliation will be hard to implement Prerequisite for successful deterrence: ability to disclose military capabilities Since cyber attacks build on the targets vulnerability, signalling credible ability of attacks may disclose enough information for the target to neutralize the attack

Question 56

Cyber operations as subversion

Answer 56

Unlike warfare or diplomacy, subversion relies on exploitation of vulnerabilities Strength: reliance on secrecy and indirect reliance on the enemy’s systems For cyber operations to work 1. Identification of vulnerabilities 2. Exploitation without detection 3. Establishment of access and controls without detection 4. Maintain control to achieve outcome

Question 57

How do information operations act as regime activism

Answer 57

Counter mobilization Economic performance, nationalism, anti western ideology Discourse framing Overwhelming, discrediting, demoralizing, Astro turfing Preference divulgence Surveillance, network analysis, opinion polling Elite coordination Responsiveness to bolster legitimacy

Question 58

Toblers first law of geography

Answer 58

Everything is related to everything else but near things are more related than distant things

Question 59

What is the conflict trap

Answer 59

Conflict begets conflict The same countries tend to be afflicted over and over again Many conflicts are directly related to previous conflict in the same location or between the same actors

Question 60

Galtons problem

Answer 60

Clustering could be due to Common shock Because of interdependence (conflict diffusion)

Question 61

Negative vs positive diffusion

Answer 61

Positive externalities induce strategic substitution relations - negative interdependence Negative externalities induce strategic complements - positive interdependence

Question 62

What are the mechanisms of diffusion

Answer 62

Competition - races to top or bottom Coercion - dominant actors directly coerce weaker actors Learning - adopting policies with beneficial outcomes Emulation - norms, social knowledge, social construction Transnational actors

Question 63

How could refugees have mechanisms leading to conflict

Answer 63

Direct fighting - refugee flows may imply the direct importation of combatants arms and ideologies Indirect support - rather than fighting openly, refugee populations can provide resources and support to domestic opposition groups or similar ethnicity or political faction Changing balance of power - can change ethnic balance - minority groups may feel that the influx of foreigners further dilutes their strength Refugees as a threat - may lose an actual or perceived negative economic externalities - immigrants compete with locals over scarce resources

Question 64

Principles of peacekeeping

Answer 64

Consent of the parties Impartiality Non use of force except in self defence and defence of the mandate

Question 65

Generations of peacekeeping

Answer 65

1. Non violent Main tasks: monitoring borders, establishing buffer zones between conflict parties 2. Included military and or police Beyond safeguarding: temporary security presence 3. Permission to use force to defend mandate Monitor and assist human rights and elections Training police forces Demobilization, disarmament, reintegration of combatants Normative objectives (consent is less important) 4. Brahimi report More strategic operations More resources and staff Rejection of too small understaffed dysfunctional operations

Question 66

Why could peace fail

Answer 66

Aggression Fear Accident Exclusion

Question 67

Why do individuals rebel?

Answer 67

fear - loss of life oppression social norms dissatisfaction with the status quo relative deprivation of political opportunity

Question 68

ex post inefficiency of war

Answer 68

in theory they should never go to war, they should always find a peaceful settlement

Question 69

the process model

Answer 69

defines that war is the product pf escalation. This starts with the context, historical or setting, which may define a conflict of interest, which starts a dispute, which may escalate to a militarised interstate dispute (MID). Threat, then mobilization of forces (display) and then to actually use of force (if death goes beyond 1000 then it’s war) most interactions do not escalate to war

Question 70

why delegate?

Answer 70

Delegation allows principals to benefit from expertise and abilities of others - Efficiency gains associated with specialization Cost saving device Delegation avoids direct accountability

Question 71

In armed conflict, when does the ‘substitution’ argument predict more sexual violence to be used by combatants?

Answer 71

It occurs when there are no female combatants

Question 72

what does the traditional view of female presence in combatant groups

Answer 72

that if they are there then the men are less likely to commit acts of sexual violence because of shame

Question 73

what is the selection argument of female presence in combatant groups

Answer 73

belligerent types of people chose to be in these groups and actively seek out this violence

Question 74

what is the combatant socialization argument of female presence in combatant groups

Answer 74

regardless, if there is low social cohesion there will be acts committed to raise morale, ties etctetc

Question 75

explain the strategic subversion dilemma of cyber attacks

Answer 75

speed, intensity, control

Question 76

what are the 4 recommendations from the brahimi report

Answer 76

primacy of politics responsive operations strategic partnerships field focused and people centered