Final Flashcards
0
Q
Homozygote
A
An organism with two alleles of the same type (BB or bb)
1
Q
Heredity
A
How parents pass characteristics to their offspring
2
Q
Heterozygote
A
An organism with two different alleles (Bb)
3
Q
Dominant allele
A
The expressed allele (B)
4
Q
Recessive allele
A
The allele that isn’t expressed (b)
5
Q
Phenotype
A
The expression of an organism’s genotype (if genotype=BB, then phenotype=purple)
6
Q
Genotype
A
Made up of the alleles an individual inherits (BB, Bb, bb)
7
Q
Co-dominance
A
When both alleles are expressed equally in the phenotype of the heterozygote (half red and half white flower)
8
Q
Incomplete dominance
A
When the dominant allele is not completely dominant in the heterozygote and is influenced by the recessive allele (red and white alleles make pink)
9
Q
Punnett square
A
Chart that allows you to easily determine the expected percents of different genotypes in the offspring of two parents
10
Q
Test cross
A
When you cross pollinate plants to find out about the characteristics and traits of the parents and offspring
11
Q
Allele
A
One of two or more different alleles of the same gene
12
Q
Chromosome
A
Coiled structures made of DNA and proteins
The form in which the genetic material of a cell goes through cell division
13
Q
Locus
A
The position of a gene on a chromosome
14
Q
Genetics
A
The science of heredity
15
Q
Gregor Mendel
A
Father of Genetics
Studied pea plants to figure out how parents passed down characteristics to their offspring
16
Q
Cell Division
A
The process in which one cell, called the parent cell, divides to form two new cells, referred to as daughter cells
Used to grow and repair and reproduce
Prokaryotic cells divide most often by using binary fission
Eukaryotic cells divide using mitosis
17
Q
Binary Fission
A
The way that a prokaryotic cell divides
First step is DNA Replication
Second step is Chromosome Segregation
Third step is Segregation/Cytokinesis
18
Q
Step 1 in Binary fission- DNA Replication
A
Just before the cell divides, the DNA is copied to make two identical chromosomes so each of the daughter cells can have their own chromosome.
19
Q
Step 2 in Binary Fission- Chromosome Segregation
A
The two chromosomes pull to opposite sides (poles) of the cell
20
Q
Step 3 in Binary Fission- Segregation/Cytokinesis
A
A new plasma membrane starts to grow through the middle of the cell, and the cytoplasm splits apart, forming two daughter cells. As the cell pulls apart, the new and original chromosomes are separated, so the daughter cells are identical to each other and their parent cell. New cell wall must form around the new cells
21
Q
Mitosis
A
How eukaryotic cells divide Step 1-Prophase Step 2-Metaphase Step 3-Anaphase Step 4-Telophase
22
Q
Cytokinesis in Mitosis
A
The cytoplasm splits in two and new daughter cells form
Animals > pinches in towards the middle
Plants > cell plate forms at equator, then new plasma membrane and cell wall form along each side of the plate
23
Q
The cell cycle
A
A repeating series of events that include growth, DNA synthesis and cell division
In prokaryotes, it grows, replicates it’s DNA and divides
In eukaryotes, it is more complicated
24
Eukaryotic cell cycle
Has two main phases
First phase is the Mitotic phase which includes Mitosis and Cytokinesis
Other phase is interphase which includes Growth Phase 1 (G1), Synthesis Phase (S), and Growth Phase 2 (G2)
25
Interphase
Stage of the eukaryotic cell cycle where the cell grows, performs routine life processes, and prepares to divide
26
Growth Phase 1 (G1 stage)
Cell grows rapidly, while performing routine metabolic processes
Makes proteins needed for DNA replication
Copies some of its organelles in preparation for cell division
A cell typically spends most of its life in this phase
27
Synthesis Phase (S stage)
The cells DNA is replicated in the process of DNA replication
28
Growth Phase 2 (G2 phase)
Cell makes final preparations to divide (ex. Makes additional proteins and gametes)
29
Chromatin
Form of DNA that is not coiled into chromosomes. Instead it exists as a grainy material
30
Chromatids
Two identical strands of DNA that make up a chromosome and split when a cell divides
31
Centromere
The region where the chromatids unite—>in the middle of the chromosome
32
Gene
Unit that contains instructions for making proteins hthat is located in chromosomes
33
Homologous Chromosome
Pair of chromosomes that are inherited from parents.
Each chromosome from one parent has a match of the same size, shape and genes from the other parent, and together, they make up one set of homologous chromosomes
34
Prophase - Mitosis
First, longest stage of mitosis
Chromatin condense into chromosomes
Membrane breaks down
Spindle fibers start to form from centrioles
35
Metaphase - Mitosis
Second phase of mitosis
Spindle fibers attach to one chromatid from each chromosome, which have lined up at the equator of the cell
One spindle from each side will take half of a chromosome, insuring that each daughter cell will have identical DNA
36
Anaphase - Mitosis
Third phase of mitosis
Sister chromatids separate, pulled by the spindle fibers to opposite poles of the cell.
Each pole has a complete set of chromosomes
37
Telophase - Mitosis
Fourth stage of mitosis
Chromosomes begin to unspindle into chromatin
Spindle breaks down
New nuclear membranes form
38
Reproduction
The process by which organisms give rise to offspring
One characteristic of all living things
There is sexual and asexual reproduction
39
Asexual reproduction
One parent
Results in offspring that are genetically identical to each other and parent
Very fast way to reproduce
All prokaryotes and some eukaryotes reproduce this way
There is binary fission, budding, and fragmentation
40
Sexual Reproduction
Two parents
Parents produce reproductive cells called gametes, which are haploid cells, and they unite in a process called fertilization, and the resulting cell is called a zygote, which is a diploid cell.
Gametes are produced by a type of cell division called Meiosis.
41
Haploid Cell
Cells that contain only half the number of chromosomes found in other cells of an organism (n)
42
Diploid Cell
Has twice the number of chromosomes as a haploid cell (2n)
43
Meiosis
Type of cell division that reduces the number of chromosomes by half, and produces haploid gametes.
Total of four cells are produced
There is Meiosis I and Meiosis II
44
Meiosis I
```
First phase of Meiosis
Homologous chromosomes exchange sections of DNA, called crossing over
Stages of Meiosis I
Prophase I
Metaphase I
Anaphase I
Telophase I
```
45
Prophase I - Meiosis I
First stage of Meiosis I
Membrane begins to break down
Chromosomes condense
Centrioles move to opposite poles and spindle begins to form
Homologous chromosomes pair up> unique to Prophase I
46
Metaphase I - Meiosis I
Second stage of Meiosis I
Spindle fibers attach to one of the homologous chromosomes
Homologous chromosomes line up at equator of cell
47
Anaphase I - Meiosis I
Third stage of Meiosis I
| Spindle fibers pull one of each homologous chromosomes to opposite poles of the cell
48
Telophase I and Cytokinesis- Meiosis I
Fourth stage of Meiosis I
Spindle breaks down
New membranes form and cytoplasm of cell divides
Two haploid daughter cells result, each having a random assortment of chromosomes with one from each homologous pair due to crossing over before Meiosis
49
Meiosis II
```
Second phase of Meiosis
Stages of Meiosis II
Prophase II
Metaphase II
Anaphase II
Telophase II
```
50
Prophase II - Meiosis II
First stage of Meiosis II
Membrane starts to break down
Centrioles separate and spindle starts to form
51
Metaphase II - Meiosis II
Second stage of Meiosis II
| Spindle fibers line up the sister chromatids of each chromosome along the equator of the cell
52
Anaphase II - Meiosis II
Third stage of Meiosis II
| Spindle fibers pull sister chromatids to opposite poles
53
Telophase II and Cytokinesis - Meiosis II
Last stage of Meiosis II
Spindle breaks down
New membrane forms
Cytoplasm divides and four haploid cells result
Each cell has a unique combination of chromosomes
54
Gametogenesis
The development of haploid cells into gametes
55
Crossing-over
Exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes
| Results in new combinations of genes on each chromosome
56
Independent assortment
When cells divide during Meiosis, homologous chromosomes are randomly distributed to daughter cells, and different chromosomes segregate independently of eachother, resulting in gametes that have unique combinations of chromosomes
57
Life cycle
Diploids parents produce haploid gametes that unite and develop onto diploid adults
58
Polarity
A difference in electrical charge between different parts of the same molecule
59
Proton
Positively charged atom
60
Neutron
Atom with no charge
61
Electron
Negatively charged atom
62
Molecule
Group of atoms held together by bonding that can be changed in a chemical reaction
63
Hydrogen Bond
Bond between molecules that holds them together
64
Properties of water
Sticks together due to hydrogen bonds
Liquid needed by all living things
Expands when frozen, floats
Ph of 7- neutral point on scale
65
Matter
Anything that takes up space or has mass
66
Element
A pure substance
Cannot be broken down into other substances
Made of one atom
Cannot be broken down smaller
67
Compound
A substance that consists of two or more elements
| Smallest part is molecule
68
Chemical bond
Force that holds molecules together
69
Chemical reaction
Process that changes some chemical substances into others
| To change an element into a compound and change it back needs a chemical reaction
70
Adhesion
Molecules sticking to other molecules of a different kind
71
Cohesion
Molecules sticking to other of the same type of molecules
72
Most important element of life
Carbon
73
Organic compounds
```
A compound found mainly in living things
Make up cells and other structures in living things and carry out the processes of life
Four groups
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Nucleic acids
Proteins
```
74
Carbohydrate
```
Organic compound (ex. sugar or starch)
Used to store energy
Made of monosaccharides
```
75
Properties of water
Adhesion
Cohesion
Surface tension
76
Monosaccharide
Simple sugar such as fructose or glucose
Fructose>fruits
Glucose>cells of most organisms
77
Polysaccharide
Complex carbohydrate that forms when simple sugars bind together in a chain
Used for storing energy and forming structures of living things
Ex. Starch, glycogen, cellulose
78
Lipid
```
Organic compound such as fat or oil
Used to store energy and other uses
Made of fatty acids>either saturated or unsaturated
Some contain alcohol or phosphate groups
Triglycerides
Phospholipids
Steroids
```
79
Saturated fatty acids
Carbon atoms are bonds to as many hydrogen atoms as possible, forming straight chains
Solids at room temperature
Used in animal cells to store energy
80
Unsaturated fatty acids
Carbon atoms are not bonded to as many hydrogen atoms as possible, so chains bend
Liquids at room temperature
Used by plants to store energy
81
Phospholipids
Type of lipid
The main component of cellular membranes
Hydrophobic tales and hydrophilic heads
82
Protein
Organic compound made up of small molecules of amino acids
Help cells keep shape, make up muscle tissues, speed up chemical reactions in cells, antibodies, carry messages or materials
83
Polypeptide
Chain of amino acids bound together that makes up a protein
84
Nucleic acid
Type of organic compound such as DNA or RNA
| Built of nucleotides
85
Nucleotide
Consist of sugar, phosphate group, and nitrogen base
| Makes up nucleic acid
86
Polynucleotide
Chain of many nucleotides bound together
87
DNA
In all cells
Nucleic acid
Made of two polynucleotide chains
Contains the genetic instructions that cells need to make proteins
88
RNA
Nucleic acid
| Made of one polynucleotide chain
89
Cell theory
All organisms are made of one or more cells
All the life functions of organisms occur within cells
All cells come from already existing cells
90
Cell size
Smaller the cell, the easier it is to get materials in and out
The bigger the volume, the less of a ratio of volume to area
91
Cell shape
Cells with different functions have different shapes
Nerve cell delivers messages>long extensions
Algae swim around>have tails
Pollen help pollenate plants>spikes to stick to insects
92
Plasma membrane (cell membrane)
In all cells
Thin coat of lipids that surrounds the cell
Creates physical boundary between cell and environment
"Skin" of cell
93
Cytoplasm
In all cells
All the cellular material inside plasma membrane
Made up of watery substance called cytosol
Functions:
Suspending cell organelles
Pushing against the cell membrane to keep cells shape
Providing a site for reactions of cell
94
Ribosomes
In all cells
Structures in cytoplasm where proteins are made
Contain nucleic acid RNA, which helps make proteins
95
Nucleus
```
Structure in eukaryotic cells
Surrounded by a nuclear membrane
Contains the DNA
Largest organelle in eukaryotic cells
Controls which proteins the cell makes
```
96
Prokaryotic cell
Cells without nucleus
Single celled organisms
DNA floats in cytoplasm
Organisms made of prokaryotic cells are called prokaryotes
97
Eukaryotic cell
Contains a nucleus
| Multicellular organisms
98
Organelle
Structure within cytoplasm that performs a specific job in the cell
99
Phospholipid bilayer
Phospholipids in the cell membrane
| Two layers with hydrophilic heads pointing out and hydrophobic tails pointing in
100
Cytoskeleton
Consists of threadlike filaments that support the cell and holds organelles in place
101
Mitochondria
Organelle that makes energy available to the cell
Make ATP from glucose
Contain own DNA
Once free living but joined the rest of cell because it helped them both
102
Endoplasmic reticulum
Organelle that helps make and transport proteins and lipids
Rough (RER) studded with ribosomes
Smooth (SER) no ribosomes, makes vesicles, makes lipids, stores substances
103
Golgi apparatus
Organelle that processes proteins and prepares them for transport inside and outside of cell
Also helps in transport of lipids around cell
104
Vesicles
Sac like organelles that store and transport materials in the cell
Some pinch off from SER and transport lipids and proteins
Some used as chambers for biochemical reactions
Lysosomes-use enzymes to break down foreign and dead things
Peroxisomes-break down poisons
105
Vacuoles
Sac like organelles that store and transport materials in the cell
106
Centrioles
Only in animal cells
Organelles involved in cell division
Make sure the daughter cells get equal amounts of mitochondria
Spindle fibers come from this
107
Cell wall
```
Only in plant cells
Rigid layer that surrounds cell membrane
Supports and protects cell
Tiny pores allow things in the cell
Made up of complex carbohydrates
```
108
Central vacuoles
```
Only in plant cells
Very large
Stores things such as water, enzymes and salts
Helps plant tissues stay rigid
Helps give flowers their colors
```
109
Plastids
Only in plant cells
Contain own DNA
Chloroplasts- contain green pigment, collect light energy and make food
Chromoplasts- make and store other pigments
Leucoplasts- store substances such as starch and make amino acids
May have once been free living
110
Organization of groups of cells
Single cell-lives alone
Biofilm-thin layer of bacteria
Colonies-organized structure of many cells
Multicellular organism-many cells and cells for different things
111
Levels of organization in cells
Cell-level>cells for different things but they work alone
Tissue-level>groups of cells for different things
Organ-level>two or more tissues work together
Organ system-level>groups of organs work together
112
Selectively permeable
Cell membrane can choose what it wants in it and what it doesn't
113
Passive transport
```
Occurs without any added energy
High to low concentration
Diffusion
Osmosis
Facilitated diffusion
```
114
Diffusion
Passive transport
| Movement of a substance across a cell membrane to to concentration without any help from other molecules
115
Osmosis
Type of passive transport
| Diffusion of water across a cell membrane
116
Facilitated transport
Passive transport
| Diffusion with the help of transport proteins
117
Transport proteins
Special proteins in the membrane that help certain substances get across
Channel-pores or holes in the membrane
Carrier- bond with substance and change shape to get it across
118
Active transport
When energy is needed to get a substance across the cell membrane
Low concentration to high concentration
May use transport protiens
119
Sodium potassium pump
Active transport
Sodium(Na)-out of cell
Potassium(K)-in cell
low to high concentration
120
Vesicle transport
Active transport
Very large molecules cross this way
Endocytosis goes in
Exocytosis goes out
121
Endocytosis
Type of vesicle transport
Big molecules go into the cell
Plasma membrane engulfs substance, then pinches of and moves inside cell carrying the substance
122
Exocytosis
Type of vesicle transport
Big molecules out of the cell
Vesicle containing substance moves to cell membrane then attaches and opens, releasing the substance
123
Concentration gradient
The path that a substance wants to follow to go from high to low concentration
124
Hypotonic
In osmosis when the cell has more water inside then out, if it bursts, it is called Cytolysis
125
Isotonic
In osmosis when the concentration of water is equal
126
Hypertonic
In osmosis when the cell has less water in it then outside of it, if it shrivels it's call Plasmolysis
127
Homeostasis
The process of maintaining stable conditions inside the cell
128
Turgor pressure
The pressure exerted on a plants cell wall by water (turgidy)
129
Monohybrid
A thing with characteristics with only two traits possible, so it's easy to track the genes
130
Sex chromosome
The one set of chromosomes that determines ones gender
| XX or XY
131
Autosomes
The twenty two pairs of chromosomes that are normal, not the sex chromosomes
132
Equation of photosynthesis
6CO2 + 6H2O + Light energy -> C6H12O6 + 6O2
133
Equation of cellular respiration
C6H12O6 + 6O2 -> 6CO2 + 6H2O + Chemical energy (in ATP)
134
Autotrophs
Organisms that make their own food
Plants, algae, some bacteria
Producers
135
Heterotrophs
Organisms that cannot make their own food
Animals, fungi, many single cellular organisms
Consumers
136
Photosynthesis
```
Process in which autotrophs make food
Turn light energy water and carbon dioxide into glucose and oxygen
Two stages
Light reactions
Calvin Cycle
```
137
Light reactions in photosynthesis
Occurs in thykaloid membrane
Photons strike photosystem II and excite two electrons, that go down an electron transport chain
Same time, water molecule splits, producing two electrons, oxygen and hydrogen
Excited electrons not excited anymore, go to photosystem I, get more light energy, continue down chain
Combine with NADH to make NADPH
Hydrogen ions move back to stroma with help of ATP synthase, which uses energy to make ATP out of ADP
138
Structure of chloroplasts
Contains stacks of grana which consists of thykaloid membranes, which contain photo systems, which are groups of molecules that include chlorophyll
Light reactions occur in the thykaloid membranes
139
Stroma
The space outside of the thykaloid membranes
140
Pigments
Coloring of an organism
141
Chemiosmotic gradient
The path that the hydrogen ions follow to get back to the stroma because of diffusion
142
Calvin cycle
Occurs in stroma
Carbon fixation- carbon makes 3 carbon compound
Reduction- takes energy from ATP and NADPH from light reactions to make 3 more energized molecules, one goes on to make glucose, others stay
Regeneration- use ATP to go back to pre molecule
143
NADPH
An energy carrying molecule used in photosynthesis and cellular respiration
144
ATP
Adenosine triphosphate
| An energy carrying molecule that is used by cells for energy
145
Cellular respiration
Process used in all organisms to turn glucose into ATP
Glycolysis
Krebs cycle
Electron transport
146
Glycolycis
Anaerobic
Means glucose splitting
Turns glucose into two molecules of Pyruvate and uses 2 molecules of ATP to make 4, so a net gain of 2 ATP
147
Krebs Cycle
```
Aerobic
2 rounds
Occurs in matrix of Mitochondrion
Products: 16 energy carriers
6 molecules of carbon dioxide
4 ATP (two from glycolysis)
10 NADH (two from glycolysis)
2 FADH
Pyruvate goes into cycle
Citric acid forms
Energy captured in NADH, ATP, and FADH
Oxygen released as waste
```
148
Electron transport
Aerobic
Occurs in inner membrane of Mitochondrion
Makes 34 more ATP, and total of 38
NADH and FADH make ATP
Move along chain
Energy moves hydrogen ions from matrix to inner membrane space
Then they move back out to the lower concentration in the matrix
ATP synthase is channel protein and captures energy to make ATP molecules
149
Aerobic respiration
Cellular respiration that needs Oxygen
150
Anaerobic respiration
Cellular respiration that doesn't need oxygen
151
Fermentation
Way of making aot without oxygen
Includes glycolysis but not other two
Lactic acid
Alcoholic
152
Alcoholic fermentation
In glycolysis, the pyruvic acid changes into alcohol and carbon dioxide
153
Lactic acid fermentation
In glycolysis the pyruvic acid changes into lactic acid
| Happens in humans and causes soreness
154
Pyruvic acid
3 carbon molecules made in glycolysis that continue to the Krebs cycle
155
NAD/NADH
Other carrier molecules
156
Cellular respiration and photosynthesis
The products of one are the reactants of the other
157
Oxygen in cellular respiration and stuff
Oxygen can help there be more ATP, which is more effective
158
Law of Segregation
There are two factors controlling a given characteristic, one of which dominates the other, and these factors separate and go to different gametes when a parent reproduces
159
Law of Independent Assortment
Factors controlling different characteristics are inherited independently of one another.
160
Regulatory proteins
Make sure that the cell is ready to move from one phase to the next in the cell cycle.
Three key checkpoints, one at the end of G1 phase, one during as phase, one during Mitosis.
If it's not ready during G1, it goes through a period called G0
161
Cancer
A disease that occurs when the cell cycle is no longer regulated, which can occur when the DNA gets damaged
This can be because of exposure to hazards such as radiation or toxic chemicals
Cells generally divide much faster than normal cells
May form mass of cells called a tumor
Can eventually lead to death
162
Fragmentation
Type of asexual reproduction
Occurs when organism splits or breaks into fragments, and a new organism develops from each piece
Ex. Starfish
163
Budding
Type of asexual reproduction
Occurs when a parent cell forms a bubble-like bud, which stays on the organism as it grows and develops. When it is fully developed, it breaks away and forms a new organism.
164
Periodic table
Table containing all of the elements, ordered in rows and columns
165
Surface tension
Water has surface tension
166
Triglycerides
Type of lipid
| The main form of stored energy in animals
167
Steroids
Type of lipid
| Serve as chemical messengers and have other roles
168
Flagella/cilia
Extensions of the cellular membrane
Flagella-tail like extensions
Cilia-brush like extensions
169
Macromolecule
A very large molecule
170
Wavelenghs
Affect the colors of light
