Final Flashcards
(121 cards)
1
Q
What are the two ways of looking at whether consciousness is all-or-none or graded?
What is the likely answer to both of these ways?
A
- Within an organism (e.g. falling asleep: did you just fall asleep, or did you gradually fall asleep?)
- Degrees of complexity across organisms: (e.g. are some organisms that have a simple nervous system less conscious than those with a complex one?)
- likely answer is that consciousness is graded
2
Q
2 different views on how consciousness evolved
A
- simple forms gradually evolved to more complex forms
- whenever/wherever consciousness emerged, it was NOT gradual (e.g. a sudden mutation)
3
Q
what are 5 views on the origin of consciousness:
A
- Panpsychism (19th cen): everything is consciousness.
- consciousness emerged BEFORE biological evolution - Consciousness appeared as soon as life appeared on earth; everything alive is conscious
- consciousness appeared when the first sense organs appeared
- consciousness emerged when the brain evolved to be more complex
- consciousness emerged when specialized social skills emerged (like social perception, imitation, language, deception)
4
Q
Douglas Hofstadter’s belief on the survival value of consciousness
A
you can’t remove consciousness from humans while other functions (like reasoning & intelligence) remain intact
- consciousness is not an “extra feature” that you can remove
5
Q
Baars’ view on the survival value of consciousness
A
in evolutionary past, consciousness would’ve saved us from danger (e.g. fear qualia)
6
Q
What system challenges the need for consciousness to save us from danger? (e.g. we can be saved without conscious experience)
A
classificatory system (e.g. there is danger) –> action system (moving away)
7
Q
Max Velman’s view on the survival value of consciousness
A
consciousness makes you want to survive (subjective experiences)
8
Q
What was Jeffrey Gray’s idea of the unconscious comparator? (3)
A
- somewhere in the brain, we have an unconscious comparator which predicts what should happen, & compares it with what actually happens
- this occurs in the hippocampal system
- consciousness comes too late to help in the present, but it helps in future similar situations
9
Q
Humphrey’s view on survival value of consciousness (2)
A
- survival value for social reasons
- consciousness as a new sense organ whose field view is internal (self-reflective)
10
Q
Guy Claxton’s view on the origin of the survival value of consciousness (2)
A
- consciousness didn’t emerge for a purpose
- it started out as a rare case of super-alertness in an emergency
11
Q
Universal Darwinism
A
- we can have other replicators (not just genes)
- other systems evolve (social, economic…)
12
Q
what are memes? what are they an example of?
A
- any kind of information that is copied (ideas, skills, habits…)
- Darwinism in culture
13
Q
Memeplex (2)
A
- a group of memes that are passed on together
- happens when a meme can replicate better as part of a group than on its own
14
Q
Edelman’s Theory of Neural Darwinism (2)
A
- Variability: the brain is growing, so neurons branch out, & there is enormous variability in connection patterns
- Selection: these patterns are pruned depending on which are most used
15
Q
What is a weakness of Edelman’s Theory of Neural Darwinism?
A
- there doesn’t seem to be the 3rd step of “heredity” that is required for evolution
- no mechanism for copying neuronal patterns to make new ones
16
Q
Leibniz’s thought experiment:
- imagine a machine that you could walk inside. You wouldn’t be able to find perception/thinking inside, you’d only see a bunch of gears.
What was the conclusion of Leibniz’s thought experiment?
A
there must be a simple substance (“monads”) that explains perception, instead of parts of a machine
17
Q
George Boole
A
logical problems (thought) can be expressed as an equation using two values (0 & 1) & rules to combine them
18
Q
Shannon (3)
A
- used Boolean algebra to describe behavior of switches (on/off)
- called each unit of info a “bit”
- e.g. 2 pieces of information can be represented in 1 bit
19
Q
Alan Turing
A
- Father of Artificial Intelligence
20
Q
Turing Machine (2)
A
- a simple machine (with 0s & 1s) that can solve any computable problem
- substrate neutral: it doesn’t matter what substance it’s made of, the concept is still the same
21
Q
2 types of AI
A
- Strong AI: has intelligence & a true mind (can feel emotions, fall in love etc)
- Weak AI: (everything we have today) can simulate the mind & make decisions better than humans
22
Q
for the first 30 years of AI, what type of AI systems were in place? (2)
A
- rule based systems
- would fail when dealing with real-world problems
23
Q
What is connectionism? (2)
A
- new approach to AI (1980s)
- not programmed to follow rules; rather, they learn from experience
24
Q
how does connectionism work in an AI system? (3)
A
- begins by making random responses, either correct/incorrect
- when incorrect, we say “try again”
- connections (“weights”) are adjusted
25
How do neural networks imitate the human brain? (2)
- when we learn something, it is stored in the strength of synaptic connections between neurons
- similarly, the "weights" between "neurons" in AI are strengthened/weakened based off info it receives
26
Shallow vs Deep Neural Networks
Shallow: has only 1 hidden layer (or 0)
Deep: more than 1 hidden layer; each is analogous to a diff layer of processing in the brain
27
2 important features of AI that imitate the brain's cortical hierarchy
1. Nodes respond to increasingly complex image features as we progress through layers (just like neurons do, going from lines in V1 to complex objects in IT)
2. receptive field sizes of individual units grow from early to later layers of the network (similar to the visual cortex from V1 to IT)
28
how do autonomous vehicles (self-driving cars) work? (2)
- use object classification (is it a car, person, truck etc.?)
- output layer of network has as many nodes as necessary to identify different objects
29
4 parts of a neural network
1. node
2. inputs connected to the node by weights
4. a bias (spontaneous activity)
5. output
30
how is information of a neural network stored?
in the form of weights & bias
31
embodied cognition (2)
- mind, thinking, learning, & language are created by the brain interacting with our bodies AND environment
- emphasis on feedback from the real world
32
embodied machines (3)
- physical autonomous robots that move around & interact
- this is called situated robotics: learns on its own (opposite is knowledge-based robotics)
- bottom-up processing (instead of top-down)
33
What is the objective of the Turing Test? (3)
- to see if a computer/AI can fool a person into believing it is human
- NOT sufficient for proving that a machine is conscious
- Loebner Prize Competition: competitor wins if their computer passes the Turing Test
34
3 requirements for a machine to be considered conscious
1. has to experience qualia
2. there has to be something "it is like" to be a machine
3. there has to be something internal ("the light has to be on inside")
35
2 arguments against machine consciousness
1. only biological creatures can be conscious
2. Machines will never be able to do "X" (X can refer to anything, like genuinely falling in love)
36
2 possible examples that show the necessity of biology in consciousness
1. functions of neurons can never be replicated artificially
2. only neurotransmitters serotonin & dopamine can sustain emotions (qualia)
37
Machine Creativity + 2 examples of it
- usually built through evolutionary algorithms
e.g.
1. AVIA technologies: composes music (rock)
2. DeepBack: composes classical music based on patterns extracted from Bach
38
Solipsism
the only way to know if another person thinks is to be that person
39
Main takeaway from Philosopher John Searle's "Chinese Room" (3)
- a Chinese speaker really understands the meanings of words/stories
- you are just following instructions, like a computer does
- takeaway: you can not get semantics (meaning) from syntax (rules)
40
2 approaches to building a conscious machine
1. how to build a machine that SEEMS conscious
2. how to build a machine that is REALLY conscious
41
What confuses the question of artificial consciousness? (2)
- humans have a natural tendency to treat others as intentional & sociable
- some machines are designed to elicit social behavior from humans
42
Uncanny valley (2)
- negative emotional reaction to things that are too similar to humans but not quite human
- most negative reactions come from zombies
43
Classical Computing (2)
- a bit can take the value of 0 or 1
- one solution at a time
44
Quantum Computing (3)
- a qubit can represent 0 & 1 simultaneously (superposition)
- massive parallel processing ability
- many/all possible solutions can be computed
45
Moore's Law (2)
- # of transistors (switches) in an integrated circuit doubles every 2 years
- this will eventually reach technological singularity
46
technological singularity (2)
- at some point, computer intelligence will pass human intelligence
- this will results in runaway technological growth (can improve itself), resulting in unpredictable changes to human civilization
47
What is the problem with building speaking machines?
- natural languages are resistant to being captured by rules
- language is context dependent
48
"Talking Heads"
- robots that can make/detect/imitate sounds, & follow each other's eyes
- they spontaneously developed a lexicon of sounds that refer to shapes
49
The Ship of Theseus (2)
- tries to address the question of the identity of an individual
- if you replace every part of a ship one by one, until none of the original parts remain, is it still the same ship or is it a different ship?
50
stages of development of theory of mind in infants ages 2-3 (2)
- age 2: start following eyes of others to see what they're looking at
- age 3: believe if they can't see you, you can't see them
51
when do various aspects of theory of mind start to develop in children?
ages 3-5
52
what is the strategy to identify the beginning of consciousness in children? (2)
- find an objective biological marker that we know is related to consciousness in adults
- determine at what point in childhood we see that marker
53
what is the PROBLEM with the strategy to identify the beginning of consciousness in children? (2)
- nature is complicated; markers of consciousness can change with age
- different markers can give contradictory/ambiguous answers
54
early conclusions regarding consciousness in infants (2)
- the mind is NOT operative at birth
- only a few islands of visual, auditory, & motor cortex exist that allow for basics
55
William James
higher level reasoning doesn't begin until at least the end of the 1st year
56
What did Piaget's famous A-not-B test show? (2)
- object permanence is missing
- Perseverative Error: children continually make the same error, even when given evidence that they should make a different choice
57
when do babies develop a bias for right-side up faces? why doesn't it develop before this time?
- after 4 months
- the FFA & visual system may not be as developed
58
when is face recognition possible in infants?
8 weeks (2 months)
59
when can infants detect variation in emotional expression?
at 3 months
60
at what age does the brain of an infant show an EEG signature similar to that of an adult when shown faces?
4-6 months
61
When looking at responses to faces vs scrambled pictures, what did Faraz Farzin find in adults?
several areas of the brain responded selectively to faces
62
When looking at responses to faces vs scrambled pictures, what did Faraz Farzin find in infants aged 4-6 months ? (3)
- some areas of the brain lit up
- there was no significant difference in reaction to faces vs objects
- in the right occipital/temporal area (where the FFA is), there was specialized response to faces
63
What did Rebecca Saxe find in her fMRI study on face perception vs scenes? (2)
- regions of the brain were activated by faces & other regions were activated by scenes
- 6 month olds can distinguish between faces & scenes, but not as refined as adults
64
What are 2 characteristics of neurons in infants?
- skinny, unmyelinated axons
- simple dendritic trees
65
Newborn brain anatomy (2)
- distant cortical regions are strongly interconnected by long-distance fibers
- not covered by myelin, so much slower brain communication
66
"newborn brain is not blank" experiment found...
areas of specialization in visual, motor, temporal, parietal, & prefrontal areas
67
what did a Swedish study on speech in infants show? (2)
- English newborns preferred to listen to vowels in Swedish because it is newer to them
- they can distinguish between sounds of mother tongue & foreign sounds
68
Dehaene conducted an fMRI study to look at 2 month old infants' brains when listening to their maternal language. What did they find? (2)
- found huge activation in A1 (auditory area 1)
- found activation in network of several cortical regions (where more complex auditory processing happens)
69
Forward/Backward speech experiment on 2 month old infants found that when infants are awake... (2)
they can distinguish between forward & backward speech
- more activation in orward speech
70
Forward/Backward speech experiment on 2 month old infants found that when infants are asleep...
what did this show?
- activity vanished
- showed that this activity is related to consciousness
71
In a working memory study on 2 month olds, experimenter played a sentence, waited 14 seconds, then played the sentences again. What was found? (2)
- Broca's area lit up much stronger after the repetition (evidence of remembering)
- shows capacity to hold information in working memory for a few seconds
72
What is the P3 Response in adults associated with? (2)
- conscious decision making
- novelty detection
73
When testing the P3 response, what was found in older infants (12-15 mo)?
at around 900 ms, P3 response happens (late)
74
When testing the P3 response, what was found when faces are flashed briefly vs longer?
brief: not a strong P3 response
longer: response is much stronger
75
When testing the P3 response, what was the most important finding? (2)
- in older infants, there's a gap in responding. this shows a categorical brain response (they either recognize the face or they dont)
- younger infants (5 months) show no gap; have not yet developed categorical response
76
What are dreams like for infants ages 5-6?
static, single images
77
how many hours per day does a fetus spend in REM sleep?
15 hours
78
What are dreams like for infants ages 6-7+?
dreams have lively & dynamic imagery
79
when do children start to use self-reference words like "me" and "you"?
between 18 mo-2 years of age
80
What are the names of the 2 "stages"/cycles of sleep?
REM: rapid eye movement
NREM: non-rapid eye movement
81
About how many cycles of sleep do we go through per night?
How long is each one?
4-5 cycles
90 minutes each
82
what behavioral measure defines sleep stages?
how easily a person can be awakened
83
what 3 physiological measures define sleep stages?
- muscle twitches (measured by EMG)
- eye movements (measured by EOG)
- brain activity (measured by EEG)
84
what are the differences between REM & NREM sleep?
NREM:
- slow electrical activity (slow wave)
- no eye movement
- lots of muscle activity
REM:
- little to no muscle activity (like paralysis)
- fast electrical activity
- eye movements
85
What are the names of the 3 stages of NREM sleep?
1. N1: beginning of sleep (relaxed wakefulness)
2. N2: no eye movements
3. N3: deep sleep
86
What happens during the N1 stage of NREM?
(2)
- people aroused from this stage often believe they were already fully awake
- myoclonic jerks: sudden muscle movements
87
What happens during the N2 stage of NREM sleep? (2)
- can be easily awakened
- Spindles: 0.5s bursts of high frequency brain activity, involved in memory consolidation
88
What happens during N3 stage of NREM? (2)
- slow-waves, Delta waves (0.5-4Hz)
- dominant phase; longest stage
89
During what stage does Somnambulism (sleepwalking) happen?
What % of children sleepwalk?
What % of adults sleepwalk?
- N3 of NREM
- 15% children, peaking at age 10
- 4% of adults
90
During what stage of sleep does Somniloquy (sleep talking) happen?
What % of children sleep talk?
What % of adults sleep talk?
- N3 of NREM
- 50% of children
- 4% of adults
91
Is it harder to wake somebody up who is in REM or NREM sleep?
REM
92
REM cycle is controlled by which part of the brain?
- reticular formation in the brainstem
- not controller by higher brain areas!
93
Why is there no muscle activity during REM sleep?
the brainstem is blocking motor commands from the cortex to the body
94
How often do people dream? (3)
- 14% dream every night
- 25% dream frequently (not every night)
- 6% never dream
95
What do people report when woken up from NREM sleep? (2)
- nothing, or they were just thinking
- reports are short, lack detail
96
What do people woken up from REM sleep report? (2)
- complex dreams
- longer, bizarre dreams
97
What did early research on REM sleep claim?
What do we know now?
- REM sleep = dreaming
- REM is neither necessary NOR sufficient for dreaming
98
What are 2 reasons why we forget our dreams?
1. decline in production of norepinephrine (necessary for memory consolidation)
2. active forgetting: inhibitory hypothalamus neurons project to the hippocampus
99
What are the sex differences in dreams of men/women across cultures?
men have more aggressive interactions
100
What are the differences in dreams of children/adults across cultures?
children dream more about animals & suffer more misfortune
101
How common are emotions in dreams?
Is it more common to have positive OR negative emotions in dreams?
What are the 3 most common emotions in dreams, in order?
- occur in 3/4 of dreams
- equally positive and negative
- joy, anger, fear
102
What % of dreams are bizarre?
10%
103
What did Antti Revonsuo find regarding his study on bizarre dreams? (3)
- the features of a character weren't the bizarre part
- usually, it was the relationship between the character & setting that was bizarre
- also, frequent random appearances/disappearances of people & objects
104
Revonsuo's Threat Simulation Theory (TST) (2)
- our dreams involve far more threatening events than in real life
- this is a survival advantage bc it allows us to "practice"
105
How do people who were born blind dream?
in words, ideas, auditory/tactile perception
106
What animals DO have REM sleep? (2)
- birds
- mammals
107
What animals DO NOT have REM sleep? (2)
- reptiles
- dolphins (1/2 of brain sleeps at a time)
108
2 stages of sleep that Octopus goes through
1. Quiet stage
2. Active stage (skin color changes, bodies twitch, at least 1 min long)
109
Where do we see activity in the brain in dreams that lack decision making? (2)
- increase in sensory areas
- decrease in prefrontal areas
110
Where do we see activity in the brain in emotional dreams?
increased activity in amygdala
111
Where do we see activity in the brain in dreams involving memory?
increased activity in hippocampus
112
What % of people have flying dreams in their lifetime?
50%
113
When do falling dreams happen? What do they end with?
- at the borders of sleep; just before you wake up
- ends with a myoclonic jerk
114
What is a false awakening dream? (2)
- you dream that you woke up, & then you really wake up
- could have several cycles
115
Why don't we realize we are dreaming? Why is there no insight?
the frontal lobes (reasoning) are quiet
116
What % of people lucid dream? (2)
- 50% have at least 1 in their lifetime
- 20% have 1 per month
117
What kinds of dreams do people who lucid dream typically have
flying or falling dreams
118
What did Stephen Laberge find regarding the passage of time when you are awake vs when you're asleep
it is the same
119
What did Stephen Laberge find when asking participants to exercise during their dream?
heart rate & respiration rate increase
120
how long do lucid dreams last? (2)
- 2 minutes on average
- can last up to 50 minutes
121
is dreaming a conscious experience?
yes, it is a type of conscious experience
