Final Flashcards
(150 cards)
1
Q
In Western societies achievers:
A
Do well in activities Are independent Are competitive Are self-reliant Are responsible Work hard to obtain objectives
2
Q
Joy in Mastery
A
< 2 years Show mastery motivation Do not seek recognition Shift goals when confronted with failure Performance standard and success/failure are not yet salient
3
Q
Approval Seeking
A
~ 2 years
Seek recognition, expect disapproval with failure
Avoid criticism and failures
Learn to expect approval from successes and disapproval from failures
4
Q
Use of Standards
A
~ 3 years
React independently of successes and failures
Objective standards for appraising their performance
Show pride and shame to achievements
5
Q
Mastery Motivation
A
An inborn motive to explore, understand and control one’s environment
6
Q
Achievement Motivation
A
A willingness to strive to succeed at challenging tasks and to meet high standards of accomplishment
7
Q
Theory of achievement motivation: Trait Perspective
A
Motivation is determined by personality traits
Need for achievement- learned motive to compete and to strive for success whenever one’s behavior can be evaluated against a standard of excellence, high need achievers take pride in their abilities and their self-fulfillment motivates their performance
8
Q
Theory of achievement motivation: Behavioral Perspective
A
Achievement related strivings- attainment of approval, avoidance of disapproval
These strivings vary depending on the extent to which they value doing well and expectations of success
9
Q
Which one is right?
A
Both!
Characteristics of the child, task, and environment impact motivation
Intrinsically motivated children prefer challenging problems
Extrinsically motivated children prefer simpler problems
10
Q
Mastery goals
A
Increase knowledge
Acquire new skills
Improve ability
11
Q
Performance goals
A
Gain positive judgements
Avoid negative criticisms
Viewed as competent
12
Q
Approach goals
A
Challenges are opportunities
Associated with positive affect and focus
Positively impact achievement
13
Q
Avoidance goals
A
Avoid failure/plan
Associated with negative affect and distraction
Negatively impact achievement
14
Q
Attribution
A
The processes by which we try to explain the causes of behaviors and events
15
Q
Three dimensions of causality
Weiner’s attribution theory
A
Locus of causality (internal, external)
Stability (stable, unstable)
Controllability (controllable, uncontrollable)
16
Q
Ability: locus, stability and controllability?
A
Internal, stable, uncontrollable
17
Q
Effort: locus, stability and controllability?
A
Internal, unstable, controllable
18
Q
Task difficulty: locus, stability and controllability?
A
External, stable, uncontrollable
19
Q
Luck: locus, stability and controllability?
A
External, unstable, uncontrollable
20
Q
Example of an attribution process
A
Fail math test –> internal, stable, uncontrollable –> “I’m just not smart at math” –> shame, hopelessness
21
Q
Attribution, achievement motivation, and achievement
A
Age trends
Motivation and preference for tasks- students prefer to perform tasks that parallel their attributions for their own success
Affective responses to success/failure
Persistence after failure
22
Q
Cultural considerations
A
Attributional styles
Social norms
Social perception
Academic environment
23
Q
Fixed mindset
A
Intelligence is fixed, effort does not impact outcomes
More oriented toward performance goals
Believe effort is necessary only for those who lacked ability
Believe effort will not impact achievement
Employ negative strategies following failure (e.g., withdrawal, cheating)
24
Q
Growth mindset
A
Intelligence is malleable and is due to effort More oriented toward mastery goals Stronger belief in the power of effort Effort promotes ability Employ positive strategies after failure
25
Social-emotional skills
```
Emotion regulation
Self-control/impulse control
Relationship skills- communication, listening, cooperation, conflict management
Empathy
Perspective-taking
Positive self-concept
Perseverance
Responsible decision making
```
26
Social-emotional learning interventions result in:
```
Higher academic achievement
Positive social behavior
Fewer conduct problems
Less emotional distress
Heightened resiliency
General improvements in classroom behavior
```
27
Social-emotional learning in schools
A few states have recently added or are in the process of adding social-emotional learning to their state standards (Illinois, Pennsylvania, Kansas)
Adopted social-emotional interventions district-wide (Austin, TX)
Federal legislation in the House of Representatives
28
How do we foster social-emotional learning in schools?
Form school-family partnerships
Practice
Positive student-teacher interactions and relationships
Train teachers to be more emotionally supportive
Train teachers to use positive discipline practices
29
Sex
Typically refers to differences in biological characteristics
30
Gender
Typically refers to social responses to differences
31
Pros and cons of gender neutral parenting
Pros: self expression, better understanding of other gender
Cons: possible bullying
32
Development of gender-typed behavior
By age 2: show gender-related toy preferences
By age 3: sort toys by gender, sort occupations by gender, rather rigid gender stereotypes
By age 9-10: show more flexibility (role of cognition and experiences)
33
Hot potato effect
Boys have no use for dolls
34
Changes in gender-sterotype flexibility, more flexibility:
With age (except possibly during adolescence)
If parents engage in nontraditional roles
If encouraged to think more flexibly about gender
35
To what degree do differences exist between males and females?
More similarities than differences
Magnitude of differences is quite small
A lot of overlap (i.e. many individual differences)
36
Gender differences in social behaviors
Agression- boys have more overt/physical aggression, girls more relational aggression
Boys have higher activity level
Girls have higher compliance
Girls more fearful, timid, cautious
Girls more emotionally expressive and responsive, including masking negative emotions
Girls more empathy, though no clear difference in helping behavior
37
Examining gender differences in empathy
Zahn-Waxler, Radke-Yarrow et al., 1992
1-year-olds (17 boys, 10 girls); mothers observations, plus home and lab observations of responses to others emotions from age 1 to 2
Results: prosocial responses increase with age, girls showed more concern than boys, no difference between boys and girls on helping behaviors
38
Cross-cultural evidence of gender differences in development
Similarity in gender differences across diverse cultures --> could be reflection of similarity in gender socialization
39
Hormonal evidence of gender differences in development
Girls exposed to androgens prenatally (CAH), later engage in traditionally male activities
40
Paterski et al., 2005: Do children with CAH display more preference for male-preferred toys? How do parents socialize toy preferences in CAH girls?
Participants: 3-10 years old (65 children with CAH, 32 unaffected siblings)
Method: videotaped in lab setting, playing alone, with mother, and with father; room contained various toys including female-preferred, male-preferred, and neutral toys; measured amount of time spent with each toy; coded parental responses (positive, negative, or neutral)
Results: girls with CAH displayed more male-typical preferences than their unaffected sisters, no difference for boys
Both mothers and fathers had more positive responses to sex-typical toy play, esp. true for CAH girls playing with girls toys
41
Bruce --> Brenda --> David Reimer story
Born a boy, but tragic accident during circumcision led to surgically altering sexual organs to be a girl (plus hormones)
Treated as a girl- initial reports of great success
By late childhood/early adolescence: "Brenda" very unhappy, depressed, never identified as a girl, found out history, got reconstructive surgery to return to original sex
Evidence that you cannot arbitrarily assign to be male or female
42
Differences in brain structure and lateralization (MRI studies)
Differences in hypothalamus and amygdala- related to emotion and emotion regulation
Differences in corpus callosum- girls brains have larger corpus callosums, suggesting greater connectivity between brains
Major caution in interpreting findings like these: Experiences/plasticity- are differences in brain structure the cause of behavior differences?
43
Gender identity
Age 2-3
| Labeling as boy/girl
44
Gender stability
Age 4-5
If girl, grow up to be woman
If boy, grow up to be man
45
Gender constancy
Age 6-7
Gender is unchanging, regardless of change in outward appearance
Seek out same-sex models
"Sexist self-socializers"
Socializing self specifically in same-sex behavior
46
Understanding gender constancy
Occurs earlier than originally thought
3-5 year olds: if make gender changes (in hairstyle or dress) to drawing of a boy or girl, no gender constancy
If make gender changes via photographs- then show gender constancy
47
Children develop gender schemas based on:
Their own perceptions
Information from parents, peers, etc.
Cultural stereotypes
48
Children use gender schemas to:
Evaluate and explain behavior
49
Example of gender schemas: Martin et al., 1995
91 preschool children ages 4-6
Shown 3 attractive and 3 unattractive toys
Some labeled "things girls really like" or "things boys really like," some not labeled
Suggests that children are very impressionable
50
Gender in the Media
Influence of who is on TV (more males portrayed than females)
Influence of how they are portrayed (even when presented non-stereotypically)
Influence of stereotyped ads
51
Pike & Jennings (2005)
62 first and second graders, 3 conditions:
-traditional toy commercial: all boys playing with Harry Potter legos
-nontraditional toy commercial: all girls playing with Harry Potter Legos
-nontoy commercial (Chuckie cheese or lucky charms)
Then, asked to sort toys (including HP legos) into piles for only boys, only girls, or both boys and girls
Results:
NONE sorted HP legos into girls only
Girls more likely to say HP legos are for both, boys more likely to say boys only
Boys who watched traditional ad were MUCH less likely to be gender neutral about toy
52
Gender differences in sum
Gender role concepts develop early and change in flexibility over the course of childhood
Males and females differ on some aspects of social behavior, but differences are small in magnitude
Multiple biological, cognitive, and social factors contribute to the explanation of these variations
53
Observational learning
Especially attending to same-sex models
54
Differential reinforcement
Encouraging sex-typed behavior
Actively reinforcing sex-typed behavior
Punishing non-sex-typed behavior
55
Parents are more likely to:
Encourage girls to express feelings
Grant boys autonomy --> example more freedom to roam neighborhood or make decisions
Fathers react more negatively to boys playing with girls' toys
56
Do parents provide different socialization to girls and boys? (Fagot & Hagan, 1991)
Participants: 12 mo, 18 mo, and 5 yr olds
Home observations
Coded for context or activity, and reaction of parents (positive, negative, or instructional)
Results:
12 month olds: boys received more positive responses from parents for male typical and aggressive behaviors than girls
18 month olds: parents gave more positive reactions to boys than girls for playing with male-typical toys
5 year olds: no differences
Evidence that gender socialization occurs early- by age 5, parents not as involved
57
Peers in gender development
Children self-segregate by gender from early age
Group norms evolve within same-sex groups
Peers react negatively to gender-inconsistent behavior
58
Do same-sex peers shape gender-typed behavior? (Martin & Fabes, 2001)
Observational study of preschoolers over a 6-month period
Observed activity level and gender-typed toy preferences
Results: more time spent playing with same-sex peers:
Greater increases in activity level and sex-typed choices of toys for boys
Greater decreases in activity level, and increased sex-typed choices of toys for girls
59
Prosocial development
Refers to socially recognized positive actions and inhibiting socially disapproved (negative) actions
Kindness, sharing, helping, cooperation
Self-control
60
Self-control
Ability to regulate one's own conduct & to inhibit actions that are unacceptable or conflict with a goal
61
Delay of gratification paradigm
Participants offered choice between small incentive available immediately and larger more desirable incentive for which they have to wait
The older they were the longer they were able to wait
62
Mothers quicker to help 3 month olds regulate their emotions...
Had children who were more likely to obey simple do's and don'ts as 2 year olds
63
9 month olds who had learned to regulate emotions to maintain synchronous interactions with moms...
Were found to respond more favorably to simple commands at age 2
64
Mother-infant affective synchrony was a major predictor of later self-control for infants with...
Difficult temperaments
65
Children's ability to delay gratification at age 4 predicted...(Mischel)
```
Academic achievement (via SAT scores)
Social skills (cooperation, friendliness)
Ability to cope with stress
Less impulsiveness
All of these- at age 18!
```
66
Delay of gratification vs. high inhibition (Wilson et al., 2009)
Examined physiological responses during delay of gratification task in 8-11-year-olds
3 groups:
Waited easily
Difficulty waiting (and increased heart rate, high electrodermal response)
Difficulty waiting (and low heart rate, low electrodermal response)
Results:
Children in low heart rate group ("underregulators") (hard time waiting)- decreased self regulation, increased behavior problems
Children in high heart rate group ("overregulating") (show agitation while waiting)- increased self-regulation, increased depression
So...not just waiting, but underlying processes involved in waiting are important
67
Age related patterns of prosocial behavior
Overall increase with age
Decreased egocentrism, increased attention to others' emotional states
Empathy emerges at ~12-18 months
Helping and sharing increase at ~3-6 years
68
Piaget's cognitive development theory
```
Premoral- minimal concern for rules
Moral realism (~age 5)- rules are sacred and unalterable, belief in immanent justice
Moral reciprocity (~age 11)- rules are arbitrary and flexible
```
69
Evaluating Piaget's theory
Children ARE willing to question rules- moral rules vs. social conventional rules (example manners, holding door)
Young children DO consider intentions when judging behavior
70
Kohlberg's cognitive development theory
Pre-conventional (younger children)- rules are external to the self, they are followed to avoid being punished or for personal gain
Conventional (older children)- rules are followed to gain approval or avoid blame
Principled/post-conventional (some adults)- considered larger, broad principles of justice
71
Evaluating Kohlberg's theory
Stages do appear relatively invariant (go through them in that order)
Moral judgements are influenced by culture (so not just a matter of complexity)
72
What accounts for individual differences in the tendency to "do good and not do bad?"
Biological processes
Cognitive and emotional processes
Socialization processes
73
Biological processes
Temperament
Identical twins more similar than fraternal twins in:
Empathetic responses
Negative emotionality (sadness, guilt, shame)
Externalizing behaviors (e.g. aggression)
74
Kochanska
Fearfulness associated with greater likelihood of displaying guilt and shame if "break" a toy
75
Cognitive and Emotional processes
Role taking- understanding another's perspective predicts prosocial behavior (and less antisocial behavior)
Empathy- experiencing others' emotions predicts prosocial behavior (esp >8 years)
Moral reasoning- complexity of reasoning about moral dilemmas correlated positively with moral behavior
76
Socialization processes
Secure attachment
Authoritative parenting
Parents as social models
77
Secure attachment is associated with:
Increased compliance, self regulation and empathy
| These are decreased in insecure attachments
78
Parents as social models
Children's moral reasoning resembles their parents'
| Parents are most effective when message matches their actions
79
Modeling: the effects of words vs. actions
Elementary aged children tested
One adult model behaves selfishly- keeps all tokens
Other adult model behaves generously- gives away tokens
One adult model preaches selfishness- "it's okay to keep all the tokens"
Other adult preaches generosity- "it's good to give some of these to charity"
Model behaves generously AND preaches generosity--> child is more generous
80
Who raises morally mature children?
| Power assertion vs. love withdrawal vs. induction
Induction
Makes child think about what they did wrong and how they can fix it
Helps moral development
Associated with morally mature children
Power assertion hinders moral reasoning
Love withdrawal is unrelated to moral reasoning
81
Induction
Reasoning that stimulates children to consider:
The negative effects of wrongdoing for others and self
How to change behavior for the better in the future
82
Why does induction promote moral reasoning?
Encourages children to understand other people's feelings (empathy)
Enhances role-taking (how would they feel in the situation?)
Implies specific strategies to guide behavior (internalization of moral choices)
83
Does parental reasoning affect child reasoning?
Yes
| If both parents are post-conventional there is a 100% chance the child's reasoning is conventional
84
Influence of peers on moral development
Interaction with prosocial peers increases prosocial behaviors
85
Why do peers have such influence?
Peers serve as social models
| Less power differential than parent/child relationship (learn rules are negotiable)
86
Moral development in sum
Involves emotional and cognitive processes, as well as acquired behavioral patterns
Varies in developmental timing, depending on the aspect of moral development being considered
Is influenced by biological, cognitive, and emotional factors as well as socialization processes including attachment, parenting practices, and peer interaction
87
Definitions of aggression
Instinct definitions (Freud, Lorenz)
Behavioral definitions (Buss)
Aggression as a social judgement (Parke & Slaby; Bandura)
Intent-based definitions (Parke & Slaby)
-hostile aggression
-instrumental aggression
-relational aggression
88
Instinct definitions of aggression
Aggression is an innate drive
89
Behavioral definitions of aggression
Aggression is a response to a stimulus
90
Aggression as a social judgement
Culturally determined
91
Intent-based definitions of aggression
Aimed at harming someone
92
Hostile aggression
Directed at hurting someone
93
Instrumental aggression
Directed at obtaining something desirable
94
Relational aggression
Directed at harming someone's relationships
95
Aggression in preschool: what are they responding to?
Younger preschoolers- parents/caregivers exerting authority
| Older preschoolers- peer, sibling conflict
96
Aggression in preschool: what does it look like?
Unfocused temper tantrums decrease over time
Young preschoolers- instrumental (toys, possessions)
Older preschoolers- less physical and more verbal aggression
97
Aggression in preschool: how often?
Frequency of aggression and length of disputes decreases between 2 and 5
98
Aggression in middle childhood: what are they responding to?
Perceived threats, derogations to one's ego and self-esteem
99
Aggression in middle childhood: what does it look like and how often?
Physical aggression and acting out behavior tends to decrease
Verbal, relational aggression more common
Bullying
100
Aggression in middle childhood: who is doing it?
Minority of children are responsible for majority of aggression
101
Aggression in adolescence: what does it look like and how often?
Physical fighting and other overt aggression continues to decline (boys and girls)
102
Why do serious violent offenses rise sharply from 12-20?
The most violent teens show an increase in aggression, AND they are bigger, stronger, and have weapons
103
Other forms of aggressive behavior increasing in adolescence
Verbal, relational, aggression
| Indirect expression of angers- e.g. theft, truancy, substance abuse
104
Relational aggression
Behaviors that farm others through damage or the threat of damage to relationships or feelings of acceptance, friendship or group inclusion
105
Specific behaviors associated with relational aggression
```
The "silent treatment"
Withholding affection
Social exclusion
Threatening to end a friendship
Spreading rumors
```
106
What does aggression look like in early childhood?
Overt- done or shown openly, not secret or hidden
107
What does aggression look like in middle childhood?
Overt but also becoming more covert
108
Gender differences in relational aggression (Crick & Grotpeter, 1995)
Sample: 491 third through sixth graders- 235 girls and 256 boys; 37% African American, 60% European American
Measures: Peer nominations of relational and physical aggression and peer status, self-report measures of loneliness, social anxiety and avoidance, depression, and perceptions of peer relations
Results: Relational aggression associated with...
Peer rejection
Internalizing problems
Externalizing difficulties
109
Card et al. (2008) meta-analysis
Found few gender differences in relational aggression
110
Other studies have found links with aggression and:
Borderline and antisocial personality features
Maladaptive friendships
Biased social information processing patterns
Hostile attribution bias- relational conflicts
111
Stability of aggression
Aggressive toddlers likely to remain aggressive at 5 years of age- and predicts aggressiveness in middle childhood, adolescence, and adulthood
The earlier the problem behavior starts- the greater the risk for the most serious outcomes- true for males and females
112
Factors contributing to stability of aggression: an ecological perspective
Child factors- social and cognitive factors and biological factors
Microsystem factors- family and peers
Exosystem factors
Macrosystem factors
113
Child social and cognitive factors of aggression
Self control, emotion regulation
Perspective taking, empathy
Social cognition, e.g. hostile attribution bias
114
Child biological factors of aggression
Temperament
Genetic links
Psychophysiological links (lower arousal, low heart rate)
Biochemical differences (serotonin, cortisol)
115
Microsystem factors of aggression- family
Insecure attachment
Parent monitoring
Family discord, family stress
Parental psychopathology- esp substance abuse, maternal depression, antisocial personality disorder
Harsh parenting and parental aggressiveness
Inconsistency, coercive home environment
116
Microsystem factors of aggression- peers
Peer rejection
| Antisocial peer groups
117
Exosystem factors
Negative school environment
Neighbors--> sense of community, presence of antisocial peers, collective efficacy
Media
118
Macrosystem factors
Culture
Poverty
Social class
119
Integrative developmental model
A number of risk factors are involved, each with varying importance over time
Effects of these risk factors depend on the extent to which they disrupt the child's day-to-day socialization
120
The likelihood of changing the course of aggressive tendencies determined by:
Prior history of aggression
Protective factors
Parent management training
Interventions with peers
121
Prior history of aggression
Age of onset and diversity of conduct problems and aggression
Example Moffit's theory: adolescent-limited versus life-course persistent conduct problems
122
Protective factors
Effective parenting and supervision, positive peer relationships, social support, academic achievement
123
Parent management training (Reid, Patterson, et al., Oregon Social Learning Center)
Goal: to intervene in coercive interaction cycle
Treatment focus for parents:
-to use consistent praise or other reinforcement for prosocial behavior
-to monitor effectively child behavior outside the home
-to use consistent, calm, non-physical punishment for specified problem behaviors
-to negotiate discipline rules with their children
Results:
-27% reduction in aggressive behavior in older children (middle childhood & adolescence)
-63% reduction in aggressive behavior in young children (preschool and early school age)
124
```
Interventions with peers
Peer pairing (Hektner, August, & Realmuto, 2001)
```
Goal: pairing aggressive and non-aggressive children can help aggressive children learn to alternate behaviors
Results: peer pairing results in less disruptive behavior
Situation is very structured, opposite effect is unlikely to occur
125
How is bullying distinct?
Bullies use aggression consistently against consistent targets
Overt physical aggression not as common as threats, intimidation, etc.
126
Characteristics of bullies
Often high in social status
High self-esteem? Depressed?
Poor academic performance
127
Characteristics of victims
Usually weaker, lower social status
Increased anxiety and depression
Boys: overprotective mothers, less autonomy (freedom)
Girls- coercive, rejecting caregivers
128
Coercive
Relating to or using force or threats
129
Bullying prevalence
```
6th-10th graders:
About 10% bullies
About 8% victims
About 5% both
About 70% neither
Peer responses:
About 25% defenders
About 20% support bully
About 65% passive observers
```
130
Factors associated with bullying AND victimization
Insecure attachment
Harsh or inconsistent discipline
Being victim of aggression
131
For bullies:
Lack of monitoring
| Negative peer influence
132
For victims:
Poor social skills
| Peer rejection
133
Prevalence of cyberbullying
Increasing rapidly
| ~40% of middle schoolers report having been bullied online, via email, or text messages
134
Characteristics of cyberbullies and cybervictims
Poor family relationships
Increased use of alcohol and drugs
Increased aggressive behavior
135
Anti-bullying policies
| Some of the most important factors include:
Promoting positive school climate (educating teachers AND students about bullying)
Promoting positive peer relationships
NOT tolerating bullying (observing bullying associated with guilt and greater likelihood of acceptance of bullying)
136
Cyberbullying prevention
Can be hard to track who is responsible
Not as easy to spot, and children not likely to report victimization
Increasingly recognized and treated the same as bullying (whether done at school or not)
137
Zero tolerance policies
Immediate, mandated harsh punishment (suspension/expulsion) for violent offenses, weapon possession, drugs, etc.
Suspension rates have doubled since the 1970's
Disproportionately target minority students --> black students 3.5x more likely to be suspended or expelled
Often lead to harsh punishment for minor rule violations
Concern with link between missing school --> dropout --> criminal activity
138
Aggression in sum
Aggressive behavior is a maladaptive pattern of behavior often beginning in early childhood and persisting across the life span
Many contextual factors contribute to the maintenance and stability of aggression
Interventions and prevention activities can be designed to change the course of outcomes for aggressive children
Awareness and intolerance of bullying help with prevention efforts
139
Major themes in social development
Human development is a holistic enterprise
Development is best viewed from multiple perspectives
Children are born social beings
Children are active contributors to their social development
Children's development is embedded in levels of social complexity
Children develop in a cultural and historical context
There is much plasticity in human development
Patterns of parenting (and adult guidance) clearly matter
140
Human development is a holistic enterprise
We are at once physical, cognitive, social, and emotional beings
Shifts in other domains, including motor skills, language abilities, and cognitive functions, play a role in social development
141
Development is best viewed from multiple perspectives
Biological, cognitive, and social learning theories all contribute substantially to our understanding of various social phenomena
No one theory has all the answers
142
Children are born social beings
```
Newborns use their sensory, perceptual, and motor capacities to respond to social signals and communicate their needs
Imitation
Crying, smiling
Social references
Empathy
```
143
Children are active contributors to their social development
Exploring the world around them
Asking questions
Being curious
144
Children's development is embedded in levels of social complexity
Bidirectional
Transactional
Aggressive child--> harsher parenting--> behavior problems--> less effective parenting
All causes/underlying factors are important
145
Microsystem
Family
Classrooms
Peers
Siblings
146
Exosystem
```
Extended family
School board
Neighborhoods
Mass media
Parents work environment
```
147
Macrosystem
```
Laws
Culture
Economic systems
Social conditions
History
```
148
Children develop in a cultural and historical context
Role of technology
| All children develop emotionally but many individual and cultural differences
149
There is much plasticity in human development
Early adversity does not automatically predict later maladaptive outcomes
Resilience is present with ordinary human adaptational systems (e.g. effective parenting, motivation to succeed)
150
Factors of social development
```
Child factors
Peers
Culture
Parenting
Genes
Brain
School
```
