Final

Question 1

What is research?

Answer 1

• A systematic process that answers a question and is free from bias

Question 2

Explain the research process

Answer 2

• Identify research problem
• Specify research process
• Collect data, analyze & interpret data

Question 3

What is a theory?

Answer 3

•Unified set of ideas that might explain a question(developed through research)

Question 4

Inductive vs. Deductive Theory

Answer 4

• Inductive- starts with individual cases, the purpose is to develop overarching theories,(take individual cases build up to theory)
• Deductive- starts with overarching theories, purpose is to test overarching theories, (start with theory then test it)

Question 5

What are variables?

Answer 5

logical set of attributes

Question 6

Independent vs. Dependent Variables

Answer 6

• Independent= cause (what you change)

* Dependent= effect (depends on what you change)

Question 7

What is a Paradigm and why is it important in research?

Answer 7

•Framework for how you see the world- it influences what research questions are asked, what results you expect to find, how you collect data

Question 8

Positivist Paradigm

Answer 8

•You believe one truth exists and it can be found using scientific methods (also known as realist)

Question 9

Post-Positivist Paradigm

Answer 9

•There is one truth and it can only be known imperfectly (also realist) *most scientists are this

Question 10

Constructivist Paradigm

Answer 10

•There are multiple truths and each person has own version of reality (therefore own version of truth)

Question 11

Constructionist Paradigm

Answer 11

•Multiple truths w/ own version of reality and everyone’s truth is shaped by social structure (feminist paradigms, race theory) (these ppl. Are critical theorists- knowledge is not value free, critical of truth)

Question 12

3 purposes of reseach

Answer 12

• Explanation- why?
• Description- What, where, when, how (usually qualitative)
• Exploration- learn more about subject, to test feasibility of more extensive study, to develop new methods of collecting and analyzing

Question 13

Nomothetic

Answer 13

•An attempt to identify casual factors of universal “laws”

Question 14

Correlation vs. Causation

Answer 14

• Correlation- empirical relationship between two variables

* Causation- making/causing something to happen

Question 15

3 parameters for causation

Answer 15

correlation, time order, non-spurious (not coincidental)

Question 16

Unit of analysis

Answer 16

what or whom is being studied

Question 17

sampling frame

Answer 17

•Representation of the pop. you are studying (requires you to consider criteria for who will be included in your study)

Question 18

Quantitative Research

Answer 18

•The numerical representation and manipulation of observed and recorded data describing and explaining phenomena that these observations/data reflect

Question 19

Pros and Cons of quant. research

Answer 19

pros: easy to analyze/summarize
con: can only tell us what happened through numbers

Question 20

Quant. Methodologies

Answer 20

• Mode- most frequently occurring data point in set
• Mean- statistical average (add all data points together and divide by number of data points in each set)
• Medium- middle data point in rank order

Question 21

Qualitative Research

Answer 21

• Collection of empirical materials that describe routine and problematic moments and meanings in individual lives

Question 22

Pros and Cons of qual. research

Answer 22

pros: provides meaning and detail, offers place to start when researchers don’t know what to ask, flexible, cheap
cons: can be interpreted diff. ways, might be superficial (people talking/interacting), data can’t be applied wider

Question 23

Qual. Methodologies

Answer 23

• Mixed Methods- using more than one method to answer question

Question 24

mixed methods pros and cons

Answer 24

pros: address questions at different levels, develop new theories or data collection instrument, overcome weakness of single methodology,
con: takes time, discrepancies in data = challenges

Question 25

Sequential vs. Concurrent

Answer 25

i. Sequential- quant then qual (qual results assist in explaining the findings of a quant study) ii. Concurrent- two or more methods used to confirm and cross-validate findings (collected at the same time, to strengthen study)

Question 26

Likert Scale Survey Questions

Answer 26

5-7 point scale used to allow individual to rate their attitude about a particular statement (neutral option, equality of scale)

Question 27

Double Barreled Survey Question

Answer 27

• Asking for a single response to a question that has multiple parts

Question 28

Contingency Questions

Answer 28

• Question intended for only some respondents (determined by response to other questions)(relevant, shorter=better, avoid negative items, avoid bias terms)

Question 29

Survey question order

Answer 29

* Can influence how respondents answer questions * Random order = chaotic * Most interesting question first- initial question should be non-threatening * Dull questions at end

Question 30

Benefits of Pretesting your Survey

Answer 30

• To get out kinks of spelling, wording, question order, clarity of directions

Question 31

Best practices when conducting surveys

Answer 31

• Be familiar with questionnaire, should be similar to pop being studied, follow question wording exactly, record responses exactly *ask probing questions

Question 32

3 Components of ‘No harm to Participants’

Answer 32

* Respect for person- duty to protect sensitive/vulnerable pops. (Children, prisoners, intoxicated ppl.) * Beneficence- research should benefit pop. being studied, benefit should be equal to suffering * Justice- burdens & benefits of research should be shared fairly w/in society

Question 33

Informed Concent

Answer 33

• Norm in which subjects base their voluntary participation in research projects based on a full understanding of the possible risks involved

Question 34

Anonymity

Answer 34

• Guaranteed in a research project when participants can’t be identified by either the researchers or anyone else analyzing the data collected

Question 35

Confidentiality

Answer 35

• Researchers identify a given person’s responses but promises not to do so publicly

Question 36

Deception

Answer 36

• The act of making someone believe something that is not true

Question 37

Debriefing

Answer 37

• Way of counter deception- interviewing subjects to learn about their experience of participation in the project & to inform them of any unrevealed

Question 38

What are the obligations of Analysis & Reporting?

Answer 38

• Obligation to: Research subjects & scientific community

Question 39

What is IRB? What is its role?

Answer 39

• Institutional Review Board- enforce ethical practices and procedures in research especially with human subjects

Question 40

Population vs. Study Population

Answer 40

* Pop: the group we are interested in generalizing about | * Study Pop: the pop from which the sample is actually selected

Question 41

Representativeness

Answer 41

* The quality of the sample in representing the pop you want o generalize about * The data derived from the sample should be assumed to represent the pop * Enhanced by probability sampling

Question 42

Probability Sampling

Answer 42

• The general term for samples selected in accordance with probability theory (random sampling)

Question 43

Random Sampling

Answer 43

each element has equal chance of selection

Question 44

Simple Random Sample

Answer 44

units composing a pop are assigned numbers, set of random numbers are generated and units have those numbers are included in sample

Question 45

Systematic Sampling

Answer 45

every #th unit is selected

Question 46

Cluster Sampling

Answer 46

natural clusters are sampled initially, with members of each selected group being sub-sampled afterward

Question 47

Stratification

Answer 47

• The grouping of units composing a pop into groups before sampling (can be used in conjunction with other sampling methods to improve representativeness)

Question 48

Non-probability Sampling

Answer 48

• Any techniques in which samples are selected in some way not suggested by probability theory

Question 49

4 types of non-probability sampling

Answer 49

o Purposeful- units included are selected on bases of researcher’s judgement about which ones will be most useful o Snowball- each person interviewed may be asked to suggest additional ppl. for interviewing (field research) o Stratification o Quota- units selected into sample on pre-specified characteristics so total sample will have same distribution of characteristics assumed to exist in pop.

Question 50

sampling bias

Answer 50

• Sampling approach in which some members of the study pop are less likely to be studied than others

Question 51

Validity

Answer 51

how accurately the study/data reflects the concept it is intended to measure

Question 52

4 types of validity

Answer 52

a. Face Validity- Does the study seem like a reasonable measurement of the variable? (someone unfamiliar with research so it doesn’t make sense to them) b. Criterion Validity- When conclusion drawn from data set can be compared to criterion data collected later c. Content Validity-The degree to which a measure covers the range of meanings included within a concept d. Construct Validity-Degree to which a measure relates to other variables as expected within a system of theoretical relationships

Question 53

Reliability

Answer 53

• Quality of measurement methods that suggest the same data would have been collected each time in repeated observations of the same phenomenon

Question 54

Ways to improve Validity

Answer 54

* Triangulation * Member checking * Inter-coder agreement * Memoing (notes to self throughout study) * Time sampling

Question 55

Ways to improve Reliability

Answer 55

* Memoing * Triangulation * Inter-coder reliability

Question 56

Coding

Answer 56

identifying important info

Question 57

Qualitative Data Analysis Steps (3 steps)

Answer 57

* Identify important info (coding) * Categorize info (developing themes) * Recognize Themes (conceptualizing: thoughts become more abstract/big picture, thinking about data as a whole)

Question 58

Direction of Qualitative Data Analysis based on Inductive vs. Deductive Research

Answer 58

* Inductive: individual cases to larger theories | * Deductive: testing theories by looking at individual cases

Question 59

Descriptive coding

Answer 59

• Little interpretation to store things known about the data item

Question 60

Analytic coding

Answer 60

combining concepts to develop themes

Question 61

Axial Coding

Answer 61

• developing themes, relating codes to each other

Question 62

Increasing Validity & Reliability in Qualitative Data Analysis

Answer 62

replication of study

Question 63

Univariate Analysis

Answer 63

• Analysis of a single variable for descriptive

Question 64

Standard Deviation

Answer 64

• the amount of variability in a data set

Question 65

Discrete Variable

Answer 65

• Variables whose attributes are separate from one another (gender, race, religion)

Question 66

Continuous Variable

Answer 66

• Variable whose attributes form a steady progression (age, income)

Question 67

Bivariate Analysis

Answer 67

• Analysis of two variables at once

Question 68

Multi-variate analysis

Answer 68

• Analysis of multiple variables at one time

Question 69

Standard Error

Answer 69

• Measure of the statistical accuracy of an estimate, the measure of uncertainty (large sample = small error, smaller sample = larger error)

Question 70

Sampling Error

Answer 70

• An assumption that the data collected in perfect (error caused by observing a sample and not the entire pop. being studied)

Question 71

Null Hypothesis

Answer 71

• Prediction that the two groups we are comparing are not significantly different from one another

Question 72

Alternative Hypothesis

Answer 72

• Proposes there is a diff. between two variable being tested

Question 73

Type I Error

Answer 73

• When we reject the null hypothesis even though it is true

Question 74

Type II Error

Answer 74

• We do not reject null hypothesis, even though it is false

Question 75

T-Test

Answer 75

• Analyze two means, comparison of two samples drawn independent of one another

Question 76

P-Values & meaning of being less than .05 or greater than .05

Answer 76

* An obtained significance level * Less: null hypothesis is rejected (there is real diff. in variables) * Greater: the null hypothesis is retained (no diff. in variables)