Final Flashcards
(226 cards)
1
Q
Anatomy
A
the study of the structure of an organism’s body parts (its form).
2
Q
Physiology
A
the study of the functions of the parts of the body (its function).
3
Q
cells
A
of which the body is made, trillions of which.
4
Q
tissue
A
integrated group of similar cells that together perform a function.
5
Q
organ
A
consists of two or more types of tissue that work together to perform a specific function.
6
Q
organ system
A
consists of teams of organs that together perform an important body function.
7
Q
organism
A
depends on the coordination of all its organ systems for survival.
8
Q
connective tissue
A
(TYPE OF TISSUE) consists of cells scattered throughout an extracellular matrix. Depending on the specific type, the matrix consists of protein fibers embedded in a liquid, jelly, or solid. Binds to and provides support for other tissues.
9
Q
Bone
A
(TYPE OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE) consists of cells suspended in an extracellular matrix that is hardened by calcium.
10
Q
Cartilage
A
(TYPE OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE) consists of cells suspended in a strong but flexible matrix. in your body, this forms much of your external nose and ears. in some animals this acts as a boneless skeleton. Provides flexibility and cushioning.
11
Q
Blood
A
(TYPE OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE) contains red and white cells floating in a saltwater fluid called plasma. This transports substances throughout the body and plays a central role in the immune system.
12
Q
loose connective tissue
A
(TYPE OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE) most common kind of connective tissue in the body. Highly elastic. its matrix of woven fibers helps hold other tissues androgens in place.
13
Q
Adipose tissue
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(TYPE OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE) stores energy in the form of fat globules and provides insulation and padding.
14
Q
Epithelium
A
(TYPE OF TISSUE) Most body and organ surfaces (such as the outer layer of skin, the inner and outer lining of blood vessels and digestive tract, are covered in this. This consists of sheets of tightly packed cells that are fused together. The Epidermis, outermost layer of skin) contains dense layers of tightly bound this. This kind of cell continuously falls off and is renewed.
15
Q
Nervous tissue
A
(TYPE OF TISSUE) communicates signals between different parts of the body. Within your brain, spinal cord, and nerves, individual cells called neurons can transmit rapid electrical signals along spindly extensions.
16
Q
Muscle tissue
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(TYPE OF TISSUE) abundant in most animals, making up much of the “meat” that we consume. It consists of bundles of long cells called muscle fibers, each of which contains specialized proteins that allow it to contract.
17
Q
Smooth muscle
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(TYPE OF MUSCLE) found in many body systems, including the walls of the digestive tract and in blood vessels. Smooth muscle is contracted through involuntary signals.
18
Q
Cardiac muscle
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(TYPE OF MUSCLE) found in heart tissue, branch and join one another to form a large interconnected tissue. This allows each beat of your heart to occur as one coordinated muscle contraction. Like smooth muscle, this muscle is involuntary.
19
Q
Skeletal muscle
A
(TYPE OF MUSCLE) attached to the bones by tendons allowing you to move. Appears stripped. Is for the most part under voluntary control.
20
Q
muscle fibers
A
make up muscle tissue. these are bundles of long cells. Each contain specialized proteins that allow it to contract.
21
Q
homeostasis
A
the tendency to maintain a constant internal environment.
22
Q
set point
A
the point at which most body conditions have to be maintained where the process is most optimal.
23
Q
negative feedback
A
where the results of a process inhibit that very process, most common way that the body responds to changes in the environment. (Ex. Hunger, temperature regulation)
24
Q
positive feedback
A
the stimulus pushes a process further to an extreme, usually to bring a process to completion. (Ex. childbirth, fever)
25
diabetes mellitus
if this is in a person the body fails to produce enough insulin (type 1) or target cells do not respond normally (type 2).
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integumentary system
one of the organ systems that interacts most directly with the environment. Organs such as skin, hair, and nails that protect the body against physical harm. The skin contains several structures that aid in temperature regulation such as muscles that can produce heat by shivering, a layer of fat that provides insulation, and blood vessels on the surface of the skin.
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nervous system
forms a communication and coordination network. consists of your brain, spinal cord, and many nerves. Neuron networks enable us to move, perceive our surroundings, learn, and remember.
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Central Nervous System/CNS
Includes the brain and spinal cord. Receives incoming signals from PNS and mitigates responses to the PNS.
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Peripheral Nervous System/PNS
contains the nerves that convey information into and out of the CNS.
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meninges
layer of connective tissue that protects the Central Nervous System.
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brain
receives and integrates sensory information, keeps the body functioning, controls the muscles, and is the center of emotion and intellect.
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spinal cord
central communication conduit between the brain and the body. Jellylike bundle of millions of nerve fibers protected inside the hard spine.
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cerebrospinal fluid
occupy spaces in both the brain and the spinal cord. Cushions and supplies nutrients, hormones, and white blood cells.
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Autonomic Nervous System
(SYSTEM WITHIN THE PNS) controls many internal body organ systems, such as the circulatory, excretory, and endocrine systems. This control is generally involuntary.
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Somatic Nervous System
(SYSTEM WITHIN THE PNS) mostly under conscious control but it also includes involuntary reflexes.
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hypothalamus
controls the secretion of hormones via the pituitary gland and regulates many body response such as internal temperature, the biological clock, hunger, thirst, feelings of pleasure, and emotions.
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Cerebrum
the largest and most complex part of the brain, consists of right and left cerebral hemispheres.
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Cerebellum
uses sensory information to plan and to coordinate body movements.
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brainstem
receives, integrates, and passes on sensory information to other brain regions. Also helps control automatic functions such as breathing and swallowing.
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meningitis
when the cerebrospinal fluid becomes infected, the meninges may become inflamed causing this.
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Integration
within the CNS, interneurons process sensory information and formulate motor responses.
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Nerves
cable-like bundles of fibrous cells, wrapped in connective tissues. Communication line made from cable-like bundles of neuron fibers tightly wrapped in connective tissue.
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neurons
nerve cells that carry electrical signals from one part of the body to another. Dendrites, Cell Body, Axon, Myelin Sheath.
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Myelin sheath
a chain of bead-like supporting cells that insulate the axon and help speed the electrical signal.
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Cell body
central hub of a neuron, housing the nucleus and other organelles.
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dendrites
usually numerous, short, and highly branched. receive signals from other neurons and convey them toward the cell body.
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Axon
long extension from the cell body. Signal travels from the cell body to the tip of this.
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vesicles
neuron contains these filled with molecules of neurotransmitter.
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neurotransmitter
when the nerve signal reaches a synapse, vesicles fuse with the neuron membrane and release molecules of this. These molecules travel across the gap and bind to proteins on the receiving cell which produces a response.
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synapse
a junction where a neuron communicates with another cell across a narrow gap. nerve signals can be conveyed across the gap to another neuron or other type of cell by chemical neurotransmitter.
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action potential/nerve signal
involves a temporary reversal of the electric charge, caused by ions flowing into and out of the axon.
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resting potential
at rest, an axon has more positive charge outside the cell than inside. This electrical charge difference across the atom membrane of a neuron is called this.
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senses
created when sensory receptor cells detect a stimulus and convert it to an electrical nerve signal that is communicated to the brain.
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Thermoreceptors
detect heat and cold
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mechanoreceptors
detect touch, pressure, motion, sound, body position
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electromagneticreceptors
detect energy, including photoreceptors that detect light
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chemoreceptors
detect chemicals, such as those found in foods and odors.
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circulatory system
a collection of organs and tissues that acts as an internal transport network. coneys oxygen from the lungs to body cells.
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cardiovascular system
consists of your heart (cardio) and your blood vessels (vascular)
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heart
receives blood via veins, then pumps it out via arteries
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arteries
vessels that carry blood away from your heart. Include smooth muscle, maintain higher pressure.
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arterioles
your arteries branch into smaller tubes called these
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capillaries
Join arterioles to venules. Gas exchange with interstitial fluid between cells. As narrow as one blood cell. tiny blood vessels that run through nearly every tissue of the body. have very thin walls that allow materials to be exchanged between the blood and the body's cells.
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venules
as blood exits capillaries, it enters small tubes called these. also carry blood to the heart. valves help pump against gravity.
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veins
vessels that return blood to the heart. valves help pump against gravity.
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pulmonary circuit
shuttles blood from the heart to the lungs - where CO2 is expelled and fresh O2 is picked up - and then from the lungs back to the heart.
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systemic circuit
carries oxygenated blood from the heart to the rest of the body, and deoxygenated blood from the body back to the heart.
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interstitial fluid
fills the spaces between cells and tissues. It facilitates exchange of materials between cells and the blood.
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hypertension
or high blood pressure. affects about 1/4 of American adults. Many people do not know they have it until its too late.
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atria
collect blood returning to the heart through veins and squeeze it a short distance into the ventricles.
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ventricles
thick, muscular. pump blood out of the heart to other body organs through arteries.
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right atrium
the part of the heart that oxygen poor blood enters
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right ventricle
where the blood is directly pumped from the right atrium. pumps oxygen depleted blood to the lungs via pulmonary arteries.
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left atrium
O2 rich blood from the lungs enters the heart here, which pumps it directly to the left ventricle
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left ventricle
uses powerful contractions to pump O2 rich blood through the aorta to the body.
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cardiac cycle
rhythmic contraction and relaxation of the heart muscles. Normal heart rate for an adult is about 72 heartbeats per minute.
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Sinoatrial Node (SA node)
the pacemaker of the heart. within the wall of the right atrium, this sends out electrical impulses that spread through the walls of both atria causing them to contract simultaneously.
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Atrioventricular node (AV node)
when the electrical impulses sent by the SA node reach this, they pause for about .1 second allowing the atria to empty. The impulses then cause the ventricles to contract strongly and in unison, pushing blood out of the heart.
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diastole
during which the heart muscles relax, allowing blood to flow into all four chambers of the heart.
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systole
during which the heart muscles contract. First, the SA node stimulates the atria to contract, moving blood into the ventricles.
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heart disease
fatty deposits blocking the arteries; the leading cause of death among Americans
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anemia
The blood doesn't carry enough oxygen. occurs when there is an abnormally low amount of hemoglobin (the oxygen-carrying molecule within red blood cells) or a low number of red blood cells.
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heart attack
blockage of vessels supplying the heart with blood (AKA myocardial infraction)
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Atherosclerosis
gradual buildup of fatty deposits, or plaque.
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respiratory system
several organs that facilitate the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between your body and the environment. Many structures contribute but the actual exchange of gases occurs between blood capillaries and alveoli (tiny air sacs) in your lungs.
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respiration
refers to gas exchange at the organ and cellular level. gas exchange occurs in the lungs on behalf of all the cells in the body. in short, you breathe because your cells breathe.
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breathing
the alternation of inhalation and exhalation of air from your lungs. Driven by movement of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles.
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pharynx
the opening at the back of the throat, the junction of the respiratory and digestive systems.
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trachea
or windpipe, conveys air from the pharynx into the lungs.
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bronchi
the trachea branches into two of these. Each leads to a lung.
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bronchioles
the bronchi branch into smaller and smaller tubes called these.
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alveoli
small sacs at the end of each bronchiole. the actual site of gas exchange.
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diaphragm
a sheet of muscle that forms the border between the chest cavity and the abdomen. Movement of the diaphragm controls inhalation and exhalation.
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epiglottis
the entry of air into the windpipe is regulated by this. This movable flap covers the trachea preventing food from entering the windpipe.
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larynx
contains a pair of vocal cords. During exhalation, air moves through this and vibrates the vocal cords, producing sounds.
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bronchitis
most commonly caused by a viral infection of the bronchioles
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emphysema
often caused by long-term exposure to tobacco smoke or air pollution
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upper respiratory infections/URI
can be caused by either viruses or bacteria
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asthma
long-term inflammation of the airway
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plasma
Straw-colored liquid that makes up over half of the volume of blood. liquid in which many small molecules and several types of cells dissolve in. composes blood.
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Red blood cells
transport oxygen. In the lungs O2 binds to a protein called hemoglobin. by far the most numerous type of blood cell. Each one is small, lacks many organelles normally found in animal cells and is shaped like a disk with indentations. Responsible for binding oxygen in the lungs and releasing it to body cells.
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Platelets
Almost immediately after the tissue lining a blood vessel is damaged, these form a sticky plug that can seal a minor break. cellular fragments that aid in blood clotting.
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White blood cells
make up less than 1% of all blood cells, fight infections as part of the immune system. Many different kinds of these.
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Fibrin
Platelets release molecules that convert a blood protein called fibrinogen into a thread-like form called this.Molecules of this cross-link to form a clot which, if yon your skin, is called a scab.
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Hairs and cilia
(EXAMPLE OF EXTERNAL BARRIER) sweep particles outward until they can be expelled
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mucous membranes
(EXAMPLE OF EXTERNAL BARRIER) secrete mucus, a sticky fluid that traps particles.
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gastric juice
(EXAMPLE OF EXTERNAL BARRIER) kills most of the bacteria you swallow. Also part of digestive system. An acidic fluid containing enzymes that help digest proteins and other molecules.
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skin
(EXAMPLE OF EXTERNAL BARRIER) forms a protective outer layer that most viruses and bacteria cannot penetrate.
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pathogens
disease-causing viruses and microorganisms
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immune system
the body's system of protection against infectious diseases.
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secretions
(EXAMPLE OF EXTERNAL BARRIER) secreted fluids - such as sweat, saliva, and tears - contain enzymes that prevent bacteria from multiplying.
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external barriers
example of defensive elements of the immune system: first line of defense.
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Inflammatory response
triggered by cell damage. White blood cells called phagocytes engulf and destroy bacteria.
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phagocytes
white blood cells which engulf and destroy bacteria during inflammatory response.
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lymphatic system
Kicks in when the body fights an infection.a branching network filled with lymph fluid. Invading microbes are swept into lymph nodes, where they are attacked by lymphocytes.
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lymphocytes
white blood cells that reside in the lymphatic system. Come in two varieties: B cells and T cells.
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specific immunity
comes into play if external defenses fail and infection occurs. Must first be primed by exposure to an antigen.
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antigen
a molecule that elicits an immune response. Associated with specific immunity.
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B cells
once activated, these secrete antibodies, proteins that circulate in the blood that are specific for that same antigen.
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clonal selection
This process is what happens when an antigen exposure stimulates the rapid multiplication of lymphocytes. allows the immune system to maintain a vast army of cells, but produces reinforcements only when they are needed.
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Helper T cells
can recognize antigens and then stimulate the production of several types of immune cells, including more of these cells, cytotoxic T cells and B cells.
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memory cells
the first time lymphocytes encounter an antigen, clonal selection produces these which can live for decades.
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autoimmune diseases
occur when the immune system's self-recognition breaks down. include rheumatoid arthritis, type 1 diabetes, and multiple sclerosis.
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Immunodeficiency diseases
result when one or more components of the immune system are missing of defective. These include severe combined immunodeficiency and immunodeficiency diseases including AIDS.
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Vaccination
(also called immunization) involves purposefully exposing the immune system to an antigen, which stimulates the production of memory cells. Modern vaccines are created from deactivated, harmless bacteria or viruses of proteins from these microbes.
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Allergies
sensitivities to allergens, components of the environment that trigger an allergic reaction but are otherwise harmless.
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skeletal system
supports your body, protects your vital organs, and anchors your internal structure.
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endoskeleton
a bony skeleton located inside your body. Skeleton consists of 206 bones.
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axial skeleton
supports the axis, or trunk, of your body
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appendicular skeleton
paired limbs and girdles. Bones of the appendages.
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Ligaments
fibrous collagen tissue connecting bones together at joints. Several types of joints permit movement, Ball and socket, hinge, suture joints.
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tendons
fibrous collagen tissue connecting muscles to bones
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teeth
calcium phosphate, used for processing food.
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compact bone
forms outer layer of bone
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Cancellous bone
Forms spongy, inner layers. Houses bone marrow, which produces blood cells.
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bone
mostly mineral, partly organic, grow to replace cartilage through development.
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bone cells
build, dissolve, and maintain bone tissue.
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fractures
result from forces that exceed a bone's ability to flex
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arthritis
an inflammation of the joints. Due to agains, immune system disorders, injury, or infection
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Osteoporosis
characterized by a low bone mineral density. Bones are thinner, so are more easily broken.
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skeletal muscles
produce movement when they contract (shorten) and exert a force against the stationary skeleton. attach to bones and allow movement. there are about 640 of these in the body.
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muscle fiber
compose each skeletal muscle in the form of bundles of parallel these. Each of these is a single long, cylindrical cel with many nuclei.
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myofibril
a rodlike strand inside a muscle fiber that is made from proteins; each muscle fiber is filled with a bundle of many of these.
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sarcomeres
each myofibril consists of a long series of these arranged end-to end. this is the functional unit of contraction in a skeletal muscle fiber.
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smooth muscle
lines some of your organs, such as the digestive tract and blood vessels
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cardiac muscle
found exclusively in the heart.
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Ingestion
eating, the first stage of food processing.
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Digestion
the breakdown of food into molecules that are small enough to be absorbed by the body. Because the body's cells cannot absorb large molecules, all nutrients must be broken into individual molecular building blocks before the body can use them.
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mechanical digestion
the use of physical processes to break down food into smaller pieces
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chemical digestion
the use of enzymes to perform hydrolysis, chemical reactions that use water to break bonds within large molecules.
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Absorption
the uptake of these small nutrient molecules, primarily by the cells that line extensive folds of the small intestine.
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Elimination
the disposal of undigested matter from the body.
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alimentary canal
a long tube that is sometimes called the gut, divided along its length into specialized digestive organs. At each stop along this, specific steps occur.
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accessory organs
secrete specific digestive chemicals into the alimentary canal via ducts
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mouth/oral cavity
the site of ingestion. Saliva moistens food, forming a bolus, and begins chemical digestion.
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esophagus
a muscular tube that connects the pharynx to the stomach. Food moves through the esophagus via muscle contractions called peristalsis.
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small intestine
chemical digestion is completed by enzymes within this which is narrow but not long. This is also the primary site of nutrient absorption.
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large intestine
measures about 5 feet long and 2 inches wide. Within the colon, main part of the large intestine, water is absorbed from the alimentary canal and returned to the bloodstream.
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Pancreas
produces enzymes that drive chemical digestion for use in small intestine. Regulates blood glucose levels through the secretion of hormones.
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Liver
produces bile (breaks down lipids) removes toxins from the blood.
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gallbladder
stores and regulates secretion of bile into small intestine
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appendix
long thought to be a useless vestigial organ. now known to be reservoir for bacteria that aid in digestion and immunity.
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peristalsis
waves of contractions in the muscles that line the alimentary canal which propel propel food through your gut.
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essential nutrients
To maintain proper health, an animal's diet must contain sufficient quantities of these, materials that the body cannot make itself.
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minerals
(CLASS OF ESSENTIAL NUTRIENT) inorganic chemical elements required to maintain health. Some, such as calcium are required in relatively large amounts.
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vitamins
(CLASS OF ESSENTIAL NUTRIENT) an organic nutrient required in your diet, but only in very small amounts.
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essential fatty acids
(CLASS OF ESSENTIAL NUTRIENT) type of fatty acids that cannot be produced from scratch by the body. must be obtained from food.
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essential amino acids
(CLASS OF ESSENTIAL NUTRIENT) must be obtained from the diet because human cells cannot make them.
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acid reflux
caused by back flow of partially digested food into the esophagus.
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Gallstones
solid crystals of bile, can obstruct the gallbladder or its ducts.
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Constipation
if the movement of feces through the colon slows, too much water is reabsorbed and the feces become compacted.
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appendicitis
infection of the appendix by bacteria.
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Ulcer
A coating of mucus prevents gastric juice from harming the lining of the stomach. infection of the acid-tolerant bacterium ... damages the mucus, leading to an erosion of the lining called a gastric ulcer.
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Cholera
improper sanitation can lead to infection of the small intestine.
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hormones
chemical signals produced by endocrine tissue that are transported by the bloodstream and affect target cells throughout the body.
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Hypothalamus
control center of the endocrine system
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Pituitary
Receives signals from the Hypothalamus, produces vital hormones
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Parathyroid glands
help regulate blood calcium levels
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Thyroid gland
regulates oxygen consumption, metabolism, blood calcium levels, and body temperature.
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Adrenal glands
Regulate metabolism and responses to stress. Of which there are two, one sitting atop each kidney. each one consists of two fused glands.
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testes/ovaries
growth and development, promote sexual characteristics, and regulate production
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endocrine system
consists of several endocrine glands and other tissues that make and secrete hormones.
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osmoregulation
the control of the gain or loss of water and dissolved ions.
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urinary system
the system that maintains water balance in the body. Disposes of wastes and helps regulate concentration of water and dissolved substances within the body.
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Uretur
Urine leaves each kidney via a tube called this.
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Urinary bladder
urine is bored in this until it is expelled from the body.
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Urethra
urine and sperm are conveyed through a tube called this.
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Kidneys
central organs of the urinary system
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renal artery
blood to be filtered enters each kidney via this
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renal vein
filtered blood leaves each kidney via this.
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nephron
consisting of one tubule and surrounding capillaries, is where the blood is actually filtered and urine is formed.
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ovulation
the release of an egg cell from the ovaries, occurs around day 14 of the menstrual cycle.
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prostate gland
adds fluid to semen
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erectile tissue
when filled with blood produces an erection
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glans
or head of the penis is where sperm exit
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prepuce
or foreskin, covers the penis and may be removed via circumcision.
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vas deferens
a duct through which sperm is ejaculated
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seminal vesicles
add fluid to semen
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epididymis
a tube in which semen is stored
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testis
where sperm is produced
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scrotum
an external sac that holds the testes and keeps them slightly cooler than body temperature.
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Spermatogenesis
the process by which the testes divide via meiosis to produce male gametes: haploid sperm
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seminiferous tubules
sperm develop inside boiled tubules called this
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acrosome
membrane-enclosed sac containing enzymes that help penetrate the egg
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head
contains a haploid nucleus with 23 chromosomes
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primary spermatocytes
cells near the outside of the seminiferous tubules divide by mitosis to produce diploid cells that are called this
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secondary spermatocytes
Primary spermatocytes undergo meiosis I producing two haploid these.
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ovary
female gonad, where eggs are produced and released
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cervix
a narrow neck at the bottom of the uterus.
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vagina
or birth canal, is where sperm enter and a baby exits
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oviduct
also called the Fallopian tube, is the site where egg meets sperm
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uterus
the site of the pregnancy where an embryo develops into a baby
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clitoris
contains erectile tissue that swells during arousal
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labia minora
are a pair of skin folds that border the opening of the vagina.
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vulva
collective name for all of the external female reproductive structures.
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oogenesis
the development of a mature egg (or ovum) within the ovary.
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primary oocyte
a diploid cell that is paused in meiosis I. A hormone can trigger the dormant cell to complete its development.
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secondary oocyte
formed when a primary oocyte completes meiosis I and enters meiosis II.
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Ovulation
the release of a secondary oocyte from the ovary into the oviduct. It will complete meiosis II to form a mature egg only if it contacts sperm in the oviduct.
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corpus luteum
develops from the ruptured follicle. If the oocyte is not fertilized, this degenerates.
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gastrula
by day 9 after fertilization, the embryo forms this, with defined layers that will develop into specific organs and tissues
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placenta
by day 21 the embryo is attached to the wall of the uterus by this. Provides nourishment and energy and disposes of waste.
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first trimester
marked by organ formation. 4th week heart is beating. 8th week called a fetus
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second trimester
time for growth
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third trimester
preparing for birth.
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amnion
the fluid-filled sac that encloses and protects the embryo
