final exam Flashcards
(100 cards)
1
Q
when olympic medalists are on the podium receiving their medals, researchers have found that the bronze medalist appears happier than the silver medalist. It is likely that the silver medalist is disappointed that she did not receive the gold medal whereas the bronze medalist is happy that she won a medal at all. This scenario depicts the use of A. Counterfactual thinking B. Perceptual confirmation C. Hindsight Bias D. Belief perseverance
A
A. Counterfactual thinking
2
Q
Reggie is asked to write a short essay in favour of social assistance to low income families (welfare). when he later encounters a persuasive message against welfare, he is better able to resist the persuasion, this is called... A. Reactance B. Inoculation C. Forewarning D. Cognitive dissonance
A
B. Inoculation
3
Q
which of the following is NOT a strategy suggested to resolve social dilemmas?
a) use persuasive messages regarding the resource
b) create small, connected groups
c) create consequences for competition
d) encourage face-to-face communication
A
A. use persuasive messages regarding the resource
4
Q
Fraternity pledges are not quite full members of a fraternity. pledges are especially likely to publicly derogate other fraternities, a condition that supports the... A. social dominance B. deprivation theory C. social identity theory D. relative deprivation
A
C. social identity theory
5
Q
while watching the olympics, Fabian noted that the American athletes were all sore losers, while he excused some bad behaviour of his own Canadian team members. Fabian is demonstrating... A. in-group - outgroup bias B. in-group favouritism C. social comparison D. outgroup homogeneity effect
A
B. in-group favouritism
6
Q
John gets in a fight with his best friend at school. When he arrives home his mother asks him to clean his room, he angrily snaps at her, throws his jacket down, and stomps up to his bedroom. Johns display of anger and frustration toward his mother is an example of... A. Instrumental aggression B. Punishment C. Displacement D. Relative deprivation
A
C. Displacement
7
Q
When a reward is given to someone for prosocial behaviour, that behaviour sometimes does not continue. This phenomenon is called: A. over-justification B. over-analysis C. over-excitation D.under- altruism
A
A. over-justification
8
Q
Looking at the page of wedding photographs, Michael found that most of the people were roughly the same level of physical attractiveness; a tendency referred to as
a) social similarity.
b) matching hypothesis.
c) similarity hypothesis.
d) social association.
A
b) matching hypothesis.
9
Q
When a reward is given to someone for prosocial behaviour, that behaviour sometimes does not continue. This phenomenon is called:
a) over-justification. b) over-analysis.
c) over-excitation. d) under-altruism.
A
a) over-justification.
10
Q
“How are you feeling” technique works because:
a) People who have asserted that they are doing/feeling fine, even as a routine part of a social exchange, will consequently find it awkward to appear stingy in the context of their own admittedly favoured circumstances.
b) There is a difference between public and private expression of emotion.
c) One does not need to stay consistent with the desirable image of a helpful individual.
d) People tend not to respond to this question.
A
a) People who have asserted that they are doing/feeling fine, even as a routine part of a social exchange, will consequently find it awkward to appear stingy in the context of their own admittedly favoured circumstances.
11
Q
• Which of the following is not one of the persuasion techniques discussed in class with reference to advertisement?
a) Make people laugh
b) Hire a celebrity
c) Include culturally diverse faces
d) Be creative
A
c) Include culturally diverse faces
12
Q
Which of the following is not a function of group norms for the individual?
a) Give a frame of reference to interpret the world
b) Give order and predictability
c) Show how to behave in novel or ambiguous situations
d) To motivate the person
A
d) To motivate the person
13
Q
Allport (1924) was critical of Gustav Le Bon’s (1896) crowd theory because Le Bon’s theory ________:
a) focused on political reasons for why people riot
b) focused on the notion that crowd makes people mad and aggressive
c) assumedthatpeopleshowtheirindividual nature in crowds
d) assumed that crowd behaviour is rooted in an unexplainable characteristic
A
b) focused on the notion that crowd makes people mad and aggressive
14
Q
Relative deprivation can be categorized into two subtypes: A. Egoistic and Fraternal deprivations B. Ingroup and outgroup deprivations C. Justice and injustice deprivations D. Absolute and relative deprivations
A
A. Egoistic and Fraternal deprivations
15
Q
What is a state of pluralistic ignorance?
a) Being ignorant about social norms.
b) Not being sure if two people are fighting or
having a harmless quarrel.
c) Going along with a norm that is misperceived to be accepted by majority others, while privately rejecting the norm.
d) Thinking that a situation is not an emergency.
A
c) Going along with a norm that is misperceived to be accepted by majority others, while privately rejecting the norm.
16
Q
According to Levin and colleagues (2001), which of the following countries are amongst the least helpful countries?
a) Romania, Mexico, and El Salvador b) Malawi, India, and Israel
c) Malaysia, Bulgaria, United States
d) Sweden, India, United States
A
c) Malaysia, Bulgaria, United States
17
Q
According to the lecture, which of the following features is NOT an important point in defining aggression:
a. Aggression as an act of harm doing against another person.
b. The harm doing as intentional.
c. The level of harm done to the victim.
d. The victim regards the harm doing as aversive and unwanted.
A
c. The level of harm done to the victim.
18
Q
Societies such as the Amish, the Inuit, and nations such as Japan and Norway are remarkably non-violent. What makes people from these places peaceful?
A) They have no words in their language for quarrelling, fighting, and aggression.
B) Their values strongly oppose competition and endorse cooperation in all aspect of lives.
C) They have simple life style.
D) They endorse religious ideologies.
A
B) Their values strongly oppose competition and endorse cooperation in all aspect of lives.
19
Q
What are the two contradictory goals in successful intergroup relations?
a) Melting pot approach and skin colour blind view
b) Multicultural society and encouraging diversity
c) Celebrating diversity and making intergroup boundaries more salient
d) Reducing categories and encouraging diversity
A
d) Reducing categories and encouraging diversity
20
Q
What is Implicit Association Test?
a) It measures automatic association between two concepts in memory.
b) It measures both automatic and controlled association between two concepts in memory.
c) It is a test that measures prejudice and stereotypes toward members of minority groups.
d) It is a test that measures modern racism.
A
a) It measures automatic association between two concepts in memory.
21
Q
According to arousal-[mis]attribution theory, the best places to go on a first date are:
a) Romantic dinner followed by fancy cocktails
b) Going on a demonstration followed by a walk in the country side
c) Romantic comedy and a ride on a Ferris Wheel
d) Scary movie and a ride on a roller coaster
A
d) Scary movie and a ride on a roller coaster
22
Q
primacy
A
the tendency for information that is presented early to have a greater impact on judgments than information that is presented later
Solomon Asch study (1946)- people see certain traits as going together. Participants were randomly assigned to read one of two lists of words describing a target person. The words were exactly the same in the two conditions (e.g., intelligent, skilful, industrious, determined, practical, cautious), except that in one condition the word “warm” was added to the list and in the other condition the word “cold” was added. Although only a single word was different in the two lists, participants who read the list that included the word “warm” saw the person being described as happier, funnier, more good natured, and more generous than did those who read the list that included the word “cold.” Similarly, we form different impressions when a person is described as “intelligent, industrious, impulsive, critical, stubborn, and envious” than when a person is described as “envious, stubborn, critical, impulsive, industrious, and intelligent”? This is exactly what Solomon Asch suggests: the first trait we hear about exerts a particularly strong impact on the impressions we form.
23
Q
self-schemas
A
our memory, inferences, and information about ourselves. People recall behaviours that are relevant to their self‐schema more than behaviours that aren’t.
schemas – mental structures that organize our knowledge about the world and influence how we interpret people and events
24
Q
availability heuristic
A
a mental shortcut in which people make a judgment based on how easily they can bring something to mind
- involves automatic processing and uses little cognitive effort.
- refers to the tendency to estimate the likelihood of an event based on how easily instances of it are “available” in memory, with events that come to mind more easily being seen as more likely or prevalent. In other words, the availability heuristic means that people are more influenced by the salience of events than how often they occur
- letter k example
- Overall, the availability heuristic indicates that people are biased by information that is easy to recall, vivid, well publicized, and recent.
25
base-rate fallacy
an error in which people ignore the numerical frequency, or base rate, of an event in estimating how likely it is to occur
- This fallacy explains why people are often very nervous about dying in a plane crash but they're rarely concerned about dying in a car accident. Plane crashes are highly publicized in the media and therefore much more salient and available to our minds.
- The base‐rate fallacy also explains why people make errors when they use the representativeness heuristic. For example, if you hear about a conservative man who enjoys math puzzles and prefers to spend time alone, you guess that he's an engineer, not a lawyer, because this description seems to fit the description of an engineer better than that of a lawyer. If you're then told that this description refers to a member of a large group of people, of whom 30 percent are engineers and 70 percent are lawyers, logically you should see the person as more likely to be a lawyer, simply because lawyers make up 70 percent of the sample. Even then, however, we tend to continue to see the person being described as especially likely to be an engineer simply because his description matches our image of an engineer more closely than our image of a lawyer.
26
counterfactual thinking
the tendency to imagine alternative outcomes to various events
- imagine that you're taking a psychology class and are very close to receiving a 90, but you ultimately end up with an 89. You'll probably be disappointed because you can so easily imagine circumstances that would have led you to get a 90 (answering one more question correctly on the final exam, working a little harder on your term paper, and so on). On the other hand, if you're taking the class and expect to receive a mark in the 80s, you'll probably be perfectly satisfied with an 87. You would be even more satisfied than those who received an 89 and were so close to receiving a 90.
- ex olympic
- The use of counterfactual thinking explains why people who feel that they could have “undone” a negative event
- survivors guilt example
27
field independent
having the ability to identify an embedded figure and separate it from a larger background
28
field dependent
having more difficulty in identifying an embedded figure in a larger background but greater ability to perceive an image as one holistic figure
29
self-construal
independent self‐construal-
a conception of the self as autonomous and independent from others, and behaving primarily to express its own internal attributes
interdependent self‐construal-
a conception of the self as connected to others, with its behaviour contingent on the values, thoughts, and preferences of others
30
Elaboration likelihood model
a model describing two distinct routes (central and peripheral) that are used to process persuasive messages
-argues that people focus on different aspects of a persuasive message based on their involvement in the message content. When people think carefully about a communication message and are influenced by the strength of the arguments, they're using the central or systematic route. An example of this would be when, because you're thinking about buying a car, you decide to read the latest issue of Consumer Reports and then test drive several cars, evaluate their different features, and so on.
central or systematic route processing – a type of processing of persuasive messages that occurs when people have the ability and motivation to carefully evaluate the arguments in a persuasive message
In contrast, the peripheral or heuristic route to persuasion is when people don't think carefully about a communication message and are influenced by superficial characteristics. For example, if you see a television ad in which an attractive man or woman drives a sleek car very fast down winding roads in scenic areas, you might make your decision based on these superficial characteristics.
peripheral or heuristic route processing – a type of processing of persuasive messages that occurs when people lack the ability and motivation to carefully evaluate a persuasive message and therefore are influenced only by superficial cues
31
Factors influencing persuasion; 7 factors
1. reciprocation, 2. social validation, 3. consistency, 4. friendship/liking, 5. scarcity, 6. authority, 7. unity
32
Stealing the thunder, persuasion in legal system
One common strategy in the legal system is for lawyers to volunteer the weaknesses in their own case, particularly if they believe their opponent will raise these issues as part of their own case. This approach, often referred to as “stealing the thunder,” is seen as a highly effective way of reducing the impact of negative information.
33
inoculation
the idea that exposure to a weak version of a persuasive message strengthens people's ability to later resist stronger versions of the message
- if you're a university student who has always been in favour of the Green Party, you'll be more able to resist persuasive messages from the Conservative Party if you've been exposed to weak versions of these messages beforehand and if, in the past, you've responded to challenges to your political preference. Those who have never had to defend their views will be less able to offer such resistance.
34
forewarning
making people aware that they will soon receive a persuasive message
-First, it's often easier for people to resist attempts at persuasion when they receive forewarning that others are trying to persuade them. Forewarning refers to making people aware that they will soon receive a persuasive message. For example, telling teenagers that they're going to hear a speech on “why teenagers should not smoke marijuana or drink alcohol in a Free Talk training” leads to less change than telling them they are going to hear a speech during a Free Talk training session in general. Researchers have found that forewarning about an upcoming persuasion attempt allows people to construct counter‐arguments and is particularly useful for resisting persuasion.
35
Subliminal processing
subliminal persuasion – persuasion that occurs when stimuli are presented very rapidly at an unconscious level
-Subliminal processing can also strengthen the attitudes we already hold. An example of this would be how self‐esteem can be affected if certain things about ourselves are made more salient. Researchers at a university in Pittsburgh conducted a study examining how self‐awareness can influence self‐esteem. They recruited 119 female participants and had them fill out questionnaires related to their self‐esteem. Later, they completed a self‐awareness manipulation task in which they were told to memorize nine objects that were attached to a poster board. However, on the poster board, there was a small mirror in the centre of the board, but they were told not to focus on the mirror. Following that they were asked to complete a test that involved subliminal perception check as they had to identify quickly flashing words as either to be negative or positive. The results indicated that those who already had low self‐esteem had an increased negative affect after the perception check. Therefore, if you already have pre‐existing beliefs, you are more prone to behave in certain ways if you are primed.
36
First principle; 1. reciprocation;
; complying with a request of someone who has previously provided a favour, all societies follow this principle, if you do good you expect good, people do not like people who don’t reciprocate, ex unrequited love
-Reciprocation study by berry & kanouse, group who already received $20 were more likely to complete questionnaire
-Door in the face technique (reciprocal concessions procedure); start with big request and then modify to small
-Cialdini and colleagues study; college students on campus were stopped and asked if they were willing to help with the juvenile detention centre; “are you willing to chaperone juvenile delinquents to the zoo?” majority say no they can not find full day
Question2; are you willing to chaperone juvenile delinquents for 3 hours every 2 week for 2 years? Everyone says no
Question 1 is asked again as follow up to question 2 and 50% say yes
-Reciprocation creates dependency
37
Second principle; 2. Social validation;
complying with a request if it is consistent with what similar others are thinking or doing, we seek validation, we follow the lead of many others and similar others, explained by social comparison theory
-Milgram, bickman and berkowitz; study of % of ppl that looked up at sky, 47% of ppl looked up when one experimenter looked, 83% of ppl looked up when 6 ppl looked
38
Third principle; 3. Consistency;
based on cognitive dissonance theory, after committing to a position, one is more likely to comply with requests that are consistent with that position
- Foot in the door technique; start with small request and then gradually increase it
- Heart and stroke pin study; 30% more people end up donating if they wore the pin
- Legitimization -of-paltry-favours (or even a penny would help) technique
- “How are you feeling tonight?” technique, response is “there are less fortunate people in your neighborhood” after you say good, guilt tactic
39
Fourth principle; 4 .Friendship/liking;
one is more likely to comply with the requests of friends or other liked individuals
-ex, tupperware corporation; getting people to host dinner parties with a sales representative there, super successful
How to increase friendship/liking; similarity, compliment, cooperation, physical attractiveness
40
Fifth principle; 5. Scarcity;
one tries to secure opportunities that are scarce, fear of loss is a bigger motivation then an opportunity to gain
- Sources of power of scarcity; Scarcity means better quality, scarcity interferes with personal freedom and people react against the interference by wanting to possess the item more
- Advertising for future products; limited availability of a product enhances value perceptions and purchase intentions
- It has been found that consumers react to the unavailability of a product by inflating their preference for it
- Advertising for future products is called a nextopia
41
Sixth principle; 6. Authority;
one complies to the request of someone who is a legitimate authority, ex “dermatoligist recommended” “9/10 dentists recommend”
42
Seventh principle; 7. Unity;
-was added
one complies to the request of those who share one's identity, shared values increase compliance, ex patagonia and their “fight for public lands” campaign
43
characteristics of group
Group; a group exists when two or more people define themselves as members of it and when its existence is recognized by at least one other
Group elements; works towards a common goal, has social structure ex hierarchical, face-to-face interaction, self-categorization
Group structure;
Norms; ways of specifying what are acceptable (or unacceptable) attitudes and behaviours of group members
Central vs general norms
44
intragroup processes vs intergroup processes
intragroup processes – processes that happen within a group
intergroup processes – processes that occur between groups of people
45
Social facilitation
when people do better on a task in the presence of others than when they're alone
-In some cases, the presence of others can have a positive influence on an individual's behaviour. This phenomenon was first noticed by Norman Triplett (1898), a psychologist who observed that cyclists were faster when they raced with other cyclists than when they raced alone. In one of the first experimental studies to test this idea, Triplett asked children to wind string on a fishing reel as fast as they could. Children who performed this task in the presence of other children wound the string significantly faster than those who performed the task alone. This effect is known as social facilitation.
46
Social loafing
a group‐produced reduction in individual output on easy tasks where contributions are pooled
- no one wants to accept responsibility therefore responsibility is dispersed
- In one study, students alone or in groups of two, four, or six were put in soundproofed rooms and asked to clap and cheer as loudly as possible. Each student made the most noise when alone, and the least noise when in a group of six. Similarly, and as described at the start of this section, restaurants often impose a mandatory tip when people are dining in large groups, precisely because of the (realistic) concern that social loafing will lead to lower tips
47
Deindividuation
the tendency to not follow normal rules of behaviour as a result of losing one's self awareness
- refers to loss of sense of individual responsibility and reduction of inhibition due to joining a group
- According to Zimbardo, when people are in large groups, they're less likely to follow normal rules of behaviour. This is partly because people in large groups become anonymous, and there is a sense of diffusion of individual responsibilities.
For example, lynchings, riots, and vandalism all occur in group settings, Stanford prison experiment
Two conditions that lead to de-individuation are;
-Group size; as the group size increases, deindividuation increases, leading to higher probability of violence
Zimbardo’s car experiment
-Anonymity; as anonymity increases, inhibition decreases, leading to a higher probability of violence in group
Zimbardo’s klu klux klan experiment
48
Stanford prison experiment (1971);
- Philip zimbardo conducted experiment to see how normal men would act when given the roles of guards
- Interest came from vietnam war and how ordinary people could commit atrocities as soldiers
- Study started by participants being arrested unknowing it was part of the study
- Half were divided into prisoners and half into guard
- Guards found ways to punish prisoners
- Prisoners eventually fell into roles and showed signs of anxiety and depression
- Guards got into their roles and level of violence rose by the day, used humiliation tactics
- Experiment had to be halted after 6 days because of the extreme results
- Experiment caused ethical debates
- Some prisoners had to be released even before the one week because they were showing signs of psychotic episodes
- Showed that there is more weight to social context than personality in crowds
49
Group polarization
when the initial tendencies of group members become more extreme following group discussion
- we end up with more extreme views in a group
- For example, when people must choose between a relatively safe choice or a risky choice (e.g., making a particular chess move, trying a difficult play in the last seconds of a football game), groups are much more willing to make a risky choice than are individuals who must act alone, assuming that the direction of the group's initial tendency is in the direction of the risky decision. If the group's initial tendency is toward caution, the group becomes more cautious. Polarization, in other words, is toward a more extreme version of the group's initial individual views, not toward risk per se. However, when groups are inclined toward risk, the process of polarization does make them take greater risks.
50
Leadership and women leaders, meta-analysis, conclusion on womens style of leadership
- Meta‐analyses of the research on gender and leadership in the workplace show that, in general, men and women in managerial positions—that is, in a position of power with a leadership role—show similar leadership styles
- conducted a meta‐analysis and examined the perception of leadership in male‐dominated workplaces. Both men and women show a masculine leadership style, such as task‐oriented approach. It was also found that people viewed leaders as quite similar to men but not similar to women, as more agentic than communal, and as more masculine than feminine. In addition, this masculinity effect revealed the extent to which stereotypes of leaders are masculine versus androgynous.
- research from another similar study concerning gender differences in leadership styles and the mediating role of gender identity found that male leaders scored lower in individualized consideration, and positive contingent reward and emotional intelligence are partly explained by their lower identification with expressive traits. They also found that women are more likely to reward subordinates, invest time in team building, and engage in connections with coworkers than men. In general, men tend to act in a more autocratic or directive style and women tend to adapt to more democratic or participative managerial styles of leadership.
51
common resource dilemma
Also referred to as the tragedy of the commons.
a social dilemma in which each person can take as much as he or she wants of a common resource, such as water, land, natural fish stocks, or oil, but if everyone takes as much as they want, the resource will eventually be completely depleted
For example, during times of drought, people in affected communities are urged to take short showers, wear clothes for longer periods of time without washing them, and flush the toilet less frequently. However, individual people may be reluctant to comply with these recommendations in part because they believe that their own use of water is relatively minimal. But if everyone chooses to ignore the water restriction recommendations, eventually the water could run out, leading to serious problems for everyone.
52
prisoner’s dilemma
the situation in which two people may choose to either cooperate with each other or compete
-Let's say two men are caught robbing a liquor store. They are separated, and each is told that if he confesses and the other one does not, he will go free whereas his partner will get a 10‐year sentence. On the other hand, if his partner confesses and he doesn't, he gets a 10‐year sentence. What's the worst option? If both people confess, each person could get a 10‐year sentence. In contrast, the best option for the group (meaning both people together) is for both people to cooperate (i.e., pleading not guilty). If they both cooperate, each person may receive a relatively short prison sentence (not as good as having no prison sentence, but certainly better than receiving a 10‐year sentence). The prisoner's dilemma paradigm therefore describes a situation in which the best outcome for each individual person leads to the worst outcome for his or her partner. The prisoner's dilemma represents a dilemma (not surprisingly) for participants because each person's best option depends on the option chosen by the other person.
53
social identity theory
a theory that posits that each person strives to enhance his or her self‐esteem, which is composed of two parts: a personal identity and a social identity
-In sum, people favour their in‐groups over their out‐groups in order to enhance their self‐esteem.
54
social categorization
the practice of classifying people into in‐groups or out‐groups based on attributes that the person has in common with the in‐group or out‐group
- factor that contributes to stereotyping and prejudice
- All groups are necessarily either groups that we are in, in which case they are in‐groups (i.e., people like us), or groups that we are not in, in other words out‐groups.
- This type of social categorization can even be done on meaningless grounds, such as eye colour, shoe size, or the province in which a person was born.
55
social learning
a theory that describes behaviour as learned by observing or modelling others' behaviour as well as by the presence of punishments and rewards, or reinforcements
- (bandura); occurrence of aggression depends on: past experience, current reinforcement, & social and cognitive factors regarding the appropriateness of such behaviours
- Children may receive rewards and punishments for expressing particular attitudes or engaging in particular behaviours toward others. For example, a child who uses a derogatory term for gay or lesbian and is then punished learns that using the expression is unacceptable and should be less likely to use such a stereotypical term again. Similarly, children often form their attitudes about people in different groups by watching (and listening) to their parents. If a child hears a parent express negative attitudes about people who hold different religious beliefs from their own, or sees a parent avoid interactions with people with such beliefs, the child is likely to form negative beliefs about people in this group and potentially to act in a more biased way toward them in the future
- bobo the clown bandura experiment
56
cognitive biases
people often use shortcuts in their thinking, and these faulty problem‐solving strategies can lead to stereotyping and prejudice. Such cognitive biases include illusory correlation, the ultimate attribution error, the contrast effect, perceptual confirmation, and the confirmation bias.
57
out‐group homogeneity effect
people's tendency to underestimate the variability of out‐group members compared to the variability of in‐group members
-For example, we may see students who attend a different school as a single group of very similar people (e.g., students at that other school), but divide people at our school into athletes, musicians, artists, and so on.
58
in‐group favouritism.
the tendency to evaluate one's in‐group more positively than out‐groups
-For example, one study found that Baptists are more likely to favour other Baptists and moderately favour Jews more than atheists. People not only judge their in‐group more favourably but they're also more confident in their judgment. In one study, it was found that people are able to correctly identify faces belonging in their own ethnic group than others. However, people tend to remain firm in their identification of another ethnic group (cross‐ethnic bias). This often can cause false identification of ethnic outgroups in criminal settings
59
illusory correlation
the tendency to overestimate the association between variables that are only slightly or not at all correlated
- cognitive bias
- For example, you may believe that it always rains after you wash your car, or it rains on the weekend, or your phone rings when you are in the shower.
60
the ultimate attribution error
an error in which people make dispositional attributions for negative behaviour and situational attributions for positive behaviour by out‐group members, yet show the reverse attributions for successes and failures for their in‐group members
- cognitive bias
- In one study that was conducted at Carleton University, asked participants to read a fictional looting case and then form a mock jury. They found that, when the mock defendant was Black, the White mock jurors believed the defendant was more likely to reoffend. The findings indicate attribution error as participants relied on dispositional explanations to describe and judge out‐group members’ behaviours
61
the contrast effect
people perceive stimuli that are different from expectations as more different than they actually are
- cognitive bias
- For example, if you expect that women will be passive and gentle, when you encounter a woman who is assertive and strong, she may seem especially tough and aggressive.
62
perceptual confirmation
the tendency to see things in line with one's expectations
- cognitive bias
- A study conducted demonstrates this effect. Participants were put in trios where there was one target and two interviewers. There were four conditions that aimed to manipulate the interviewer's expectations as being hostile or non‐hostile and the target as being hostile or non‐hostile. Results indicated that even though the target's behaviour did not differ across conditions, interviewers viewed the target as hostile if interviewers assumed they would.
63
confirmation bias
the tendency to search for information that supports one's initial view
- cognitive bias
- People may also ask questions that are designed to confirm their expectations, which protects them from gaining and using disconfirming information. For example, if you're meeting people from Sweden for the first time, you might ask them about their love of ice hockey, cold weather, and saunas, whereas if you're meeting people from Brazil for the first time, you might ask them about their love of spicy foods, festive music, and carnivals.
64
Research on stereotype threat;awareness that you have about stereotype impacts your behaviour in a negative way
the fear that one's behaviour may confirm an existing cultural stereotype, which then disrupts one's performance
-For example, if a woman is told that she's about to take a test on spatial reasoning that women typically do poorly on, that awareness may make her nervous and thus lead her to do less well on the test.
65
hostile stereotypes
Although stereotypes may sometimes be relatively harmless, or even positive, they may lead to prejudice, meaning hostile or negative feelings about people based on their membership in a certain group, and discrimination, meaning behaviour directed against individuals solely because of their membership in a particular group.
66
benevolent stereotypes
Benevolent discrimination underlies views that, for example, women are pure, fragile, and good at nurturing. Although seemingly positive (albeit patronizing) because they flatter women on their feminine nurturing qualities, these beliefs serve to undermine women's abilities, rights, and freedoms and ultimately threaten their social status.
-benevolent sexism
having positive, but patronizing, views of women
67
Strategies for avoiding stereotypes and prejudice
breaking stereotypes is similar to breaking habits
68
agression instinct theory:
Aggressive instinct: argues that series of instincts and one of those is aggression
Death instinct: reduces 18 instincts into 2 instincts, 1 is death instinct; all living beings have tendencies to reduce life to where it came from aka nothing, first focused on self destruction then went outwards and focused on others, second instinct is love or procreation instinct
Freud’s Hydraulic theory analogy; unexpressed emotions build up pressure which must be expressed to relieve that pressure
This is how freud explains death instinct
Studies on aggression
Observation of and experimentation with species other than humans
Zing yang kuo’s experiment; raising a kitten in the same cage as a rat to see if they show the same pattern as other cats who chase rats, argument is that it is a learned behaviour, trying to show that aggression is learned, rejected by other researchers, problem is all this experiment shows is that aggression can be modified, not that it doesnt exist
Eibl- Eibesfeldts experiment; raising rats in isolation, wanted to see if new rats were introduced to isolated environment, would isolated rat attack? Findings were that isolated rat attacks new rat to protect place it lives, even though isolated rat has never seen aggression, it attacks to protect living environment, concludes that aggression is inborn, rejected by other researchers because if aggression is inborn, we should not have to change environement/ introduce threat (new rat)
Konard Lorenz’s observation of the behaviors of cichlid’s, highly aggressive fish; he looked at them in their natural environment and saw that they are very aggressive and attack other males, but they never attack females or other types of fish, he proposed to remove all male cichlids from environment leaving only females and other fish and one male cichlid, he found that the one male cichlid started attacking other male fish which originally he had ignored, instead of adding threat he removes threat and fish is still aggressive, he then removed all other fish and only had one male cichlid and other female cichlids, male cichlid eventually attacks female cichlids, irrefutable in proving aggression is inborn
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aggression genetics theory
Evolutionary perspective of aggression;
Emphasizing genetic survival;
Human warfare originated in attempts to obtain valuable resources; territory, wealth, food
Most important resource are women
When war happens, they rape women
Gender & patterns of mate selection; men generally look for women who are young, youth signifies health, health signifies ability to give birth to healthy children, women generally look for taller, bigger men, signifies protection and power
Study of sexual jealousy; questionairre, asks participants to think of serious commitment you had or have, which is more distressing? imagine your partner forming deep emotional attatchment to that person or would you rather imagine them enjoying passionate sexual intercourse with that person, women tend to find emotional connection more distressing and men tend to find female having sexual connection more distressing, this is because of paternity reasons, threatens reproductive success
There are biochemical and neural influences on aggression:
Amygdala, an area in the core of the brain, is associated with aggressive behaviour
Not a straightforward link, depends on situational factors
Testosterone, a sex hormone, is associated with aggression
Men with lower socioeconomic status with high testosterone tend be more aggressive, men with higher socioeconomic status and high testosterone do not become more aggressive
If you inject men with testosterone, it does not make them more aggressive
Serotonin, a neurotransmitter, is associated with aggression
If you block serotonin activity, person is more likely to become aggressive under stress
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aggression frustration theory
Frustration-aggression theory (Dollard);
Freudian + behaviourist ideas
According to this theory, frustration always elicits the motive to aggress and all aggression is caused by frustration
Catharsis; all emotions including aggression need to be expressed, otherwise it leads to abnormality
Displacement; when we are frustrated and become aggressive we are not always aggressive towards our frustration
Supporting studies; hovland and sears
Negative correlation between racial aggression and economic security, as price of cotton decreased, lynching behaviour increased, higher racial aggression
Miller and bugelski found that frustration increases negative attitudes to minority groups
Pastore argues that unjustified frustration leads to aggression, something that you cannot explain
Overall; mixed results
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aggression deprivation theory
relative deprivation – the feelings of discontent caused by the belief that one fares poorly compared to people in other groups
-Intergroup aggression; A crucial precondition for intergroup aggression is relative deprivation
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Strategies to reduce aggression;
sincere apology, poverty is leading cause, reduce poverty, reduce aggression
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Culture and aggression; surveys at end of chapter on cultural differences
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high aggression countries
Honduras; worlds most violent country 1 in 1100 chance of being murdered
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low level aggression countries
Singapore; worlds least violent country 1 in 480,000 chance of being murdered
Nonviolent societies: balinese (Indonesian island of Bali), Inuit, Tibetan Buddhist society in Northern India, Zapotec (Native American society in Southern Mexico)
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prosocial behaviour
– any behaviour that has the goal of helping another person
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Theories of pro-social behaviour; evolutionary factors
kinship selection – the idea that we're more likely to help those we are genetically related to
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Theories of pro-social behaviour; personality
In general, people show an increase in empathy and prosocial behaviour as they mature, but individuals also vary considerably in their frequency and types of helping
-People who are generally altruistic share some common traits. First, they are high in empathy
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Theories of pro-social behaviour; norms
Social norms also influence helping. Let's examine two norms that are associated with prosocial behaviour: the norm of reciprocity and the norm of social responsibility.
- norm of reciprocity – the idea that we should help those who are in need of assistance, because they will then help us in the future
- norm of social responsibility – the idea that we have an obligation to help those who are in need of assistance
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Theories of pro-social behaviour; situational factors
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Theories of pro-social behaviour; empathy-altruism hypothesis
the idea that when we feel empathy for a person, we will help that person even if we incur a cost in doing so
- For example, infants showed increased empathy from 8 to 16 months after seeing their mother or a peer in distress, such as by showing affective concern (e.g., a sad/concerned facial expression or sympathetic vocal tones) for the distressed individual. In turn, empathic concern for a person in need produces an altruistic motive for helping.
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bystander effect
the situation whereby people are less likely to help in emergency situations when there are other people present than if the person who could help is alone, resulting in a decreased likelihood of help being given
-Overall, the bystander effect is reduced when a situation is dangerous (vs. non‐dangerous). So, in an emergency scenario, it is easily identifiable and people are more readily willing to help.
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urban overload hypothesis
the hypothesis that people who live in urban areas are constantly exposed to stimulation, which in turn leads them to decrease their awareness of their environment
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Culture and its influence on helping
Studies show that in all cultures, helping behaviour is more likely to be given to an in‐group member than an out‐group member
- In collectivistic cultures, however, members of in‐groups are even more likely to be helped than out‐group members, compared to the rates of helping in individualistic cultures
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Factors that explain the association between physical attractiveness and attraction: biological
Symmetry (physical attractiveness); the ventral tegmental area (VTA) lit up in response to a beautiful face, research shows men and women who are symmetrical not only have sex earlier but more than people who are not symmetrical.
-Researchers have also found that when heterosexual men look at an attractive female the area of the brain that is activated is the same area that is associated with other types of rewards, including monetary gain and drugs, suggesting that when men see a beautiful woman they may be experiencing reward in a similar way to winning a cash prize or getting high
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Factors that explain the association between physical attractiveness and attraction: socio-psychological
people may want to associate with attractive people because such relationships could lead to social profit (e.g., you look good if your date is good looking
-People hold a “what is beautiful is good” stereotype. In other words, we see attractive people as also having a variety of other positive traits
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Model of love by sternberg
corners of triangle; commitment, passion, intimacy,
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Relationships and problems in relationships (text)
criticism: complaining about some features of the spouse or the relationship
contempt: acting as if sickened or repulsed by one's partner
defensiveness: protecting the self
stonewalling: emotionally withdrawing and refusing to participate in conversation
- demand/withdraw interaction pattern – a relatively common situation in which one partner is nagging, critical, and insistent about discussing the relationship problems, while the other partner is being withdrawn, silent, and defensive
- negative attributional traps – explaining a partner's behaviour in negative ways
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Culture and romantic relationships (text)
most common method of marriage in world is arranged marriage
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Cultural context of persuasion
Different types of persuasive messages are effective in different cultures. In individualistic societies, certain characteristics of the source, such as being an expert, increase the source's credibility and the message's persuasiveness. In collectivistic societies, other factors, including being an older male and part of a famous family, increase credibility and, therefore, persuasiveness
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Effective communication
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Isomorphic attribution
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4 stages of competence, unconscious incompetence, conscious incompetence, conscious competence, unconscious competence
Unconscious incompetence; you unknowingly are incompetent. ex, a man trying to shake Muslim women’s hand
Conscious incompetence; you recognize you’re in a society where things are one differently and try to develop a sense of competence, struggling to interpret behaviour as people within a culture do
Conscious competence; recognizing different norms and engaging in them
Unconscious competence; what you do in native culture and language, you don’t have to think about it because you were born into it
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Paralinguistic communication; eye contact, touching, physical distances
Paralinguistic communication;
Eye contact;
High level of eye contact among Arabs, Latin Americans & Southern Europeans
Low level of eye contact; Japanese, Indians & Northern Europe
Touching;
Parts of the body being touched is culturally determined
Comparison of Americans and Japanese (Barnlund, 1975)
30% of Canadians do not touch another person on a daily basis
Venezuelans stand closer together, Japanese stay farther, Americans are in the middle
Examination of social influence factors in four societies; US, China, Spain, Germany
The USA; reciprocity, China; authority, Spain; friendship/kindness, Germany; consistency
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Model of group socialization; how theyre connected, aims to raise commitment, happens as a result of cognitive dissonance
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Stage 1; investigation;
recruitment
Identify new members
Evaluate potential members
Talk to potential members to join the group
Role transition 1: Entry
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Stage 2; socialization;
During socialization, the new member tries to influence the group so it satisfies his or her personal needs, while the group tries to influence the new member so he or she contributes more to the group
Role transition 2; acceptance
Stage 3; maintenance;
During maintenance there is a considerable negotiation between the member and the group for finding the best role for the person. The aim is to satisfy the personal needs of the member and the goals of the group.
Role transition 3; divergence
Stage 4; re- socialization;
After divergent, the person tries to accommodate himself or herself in the group and the group tries to assimilate the person
Role transition 4; exit
Acceptable reasons for exit;
Leave when supposed to leave (graduate)
Leave with good (acceptable) reason
Stage 5; remembrance
At this stage retrospective evaluation happens from both the person and the group
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Crowd theories
‘Crowd makes people Mad’ -Le Bon, they become anonymous, suggestible, contagious
‘Bad individuals make crowd, crowd doesnt make them bad’ -Allport
Gustav le bon; suggested that in crowds people submerge into a avery primitive mind
Le Bon described 3 characteristics of crowds;
Anonymity; unknown to those around them
Suggestibility; hypnotic state, open to suggestion, even violent
Contagion; suggestion spreads in crowd like disease
Le bon described crowd as source of power as well
According to Le bon, because people in crowds dont think clearly, messages need to be exaggerated, simplified and repeated.
Alternative view; Allport was critical of Le Bon and argued “the individual in the crowd behaves just as he would behave alone, only more so/ exaggerated
Allport argued that in crowd people reveal their true nature, ex aggressive people
Both of these views are dismissive of crowd, they say crowd is dangerous and needs to be controlled
Le bon says crowd makes people mad, Allport says mad people join the crowd
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Social identity in crowd
Richer applied social identity theory in examining crowd behaviour
-According to reicher, features of many crowd situations are;
1. Crowd always involve two groups (intergroup behaviour)
2. People do not lose identity but assume a new social identity
Reicher applied social identity theory in examining crowd behaviour
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The riot in Bristol (1980)
Two groups reacting to eachother
Not a random destruction
Geographically confined behaviour
No anonymity
Strong social identity
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Intergroup relations
the way in which people in groups perceive, think about, feel about, and act toward people in other groups
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Why do we categorize?
1. To reduce complexity of world
Principle of least effort
2. Human cognitive capacity is limited
3. Categorization is an effective way to communicate and deal w wide stimuli
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Consequence of categorization;
1. Category accentuation; After categories are formed, there is a tendency to exaggerate the difference between two categories
2. In group favoritism
Minimal group paradigm- tajfal
3. Outgroup homogeneity
Brigham and bark study
