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Final Exam Flashcards

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1
Q

Method of tenacity

A

Information is accepted as true because it has always been believed or because superstition supports it

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2
Q

Method of intuition

A

Information is accepted on the basis of a hunch or “gut feeling.”

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3
Q

Method of authority

A

A person relies on information or answers from an expert in the subject area.

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4
Q

Rational method

A

Seeks answers by the use of logical reasoning.

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5
Q

Empirical method

A

Uses observation or direct sensory experience to obtain knowledge.

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6
Q

Scientific method

A

An approach to acquiring knowledge that involves formulating specific questions and then systematically finding answers.

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7
Q

Inductive reasoning

A

Involves using a relatively small set of specific observations as the basis for forming a general statement about a larger set of possible observations.

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8
Q

Deductive reasoning

A

Uses a general statement as the basis for reaching a conclusion about specific examples.

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9
Q

Operational definition

A

A procedure for indirectly measuring and defining a variable that cannot be observed or measured directly.

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10
Q

Reliability of a measurement

A

The stability or consistency of the measurement

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11
Q

Test-retest reliability

A

Established by comparing the scores obtained from two successive measurements of the same individuals and calculating a correlation between the two sets of scores.

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12
Q

Inter-rater reliability

A

The degree of agreement between two observers who simultaneously record measurements of the behaviors.

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13
Q

Split-half reliability

A

Obtained by splitting the items on a questionnaire or test in half, computing a separate score for each half, and then calculating the degree of consistency between the two scores for a group of participants.

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14
Q

Validity of a measure

A

The degree to which the measurement process measures the variable that it claims to measure.

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15
Q

Construct validity

A

Requires that the scores obtained from a measurement procedure behave exactly the same as the variable itself.

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16
Q

Concurrent validity

A

Demonstrated when scores obtained from a new measure are directly related to scores obtained from an established measure of the same variable.

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17
Q

Experimenter bias

A

Occurs when the measurements obtained in a study are influenced by the experimenter’s expectations or personal beliefs regarding the outcome of the study.

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18
Q

How to minimize experimenter bias

A

Mechanize the procedure; follow a protocol; use double-blind procedure

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19
Q

Reactivity

A

Occurs when participants modify their natural behavior in response to the fact that they are participating in a research study or the knowledge that they are being measured.

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20
Q

Demand characteristics

A

Any of the potential cues or features of a study that (1) suggest to the participants what the purpose and hypothesis is and (2) influence the participants to respond or behave in a certain way.

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21
Q

Good participant

A

These participants have identified the hypothesis of the study and are trying to produce responses that support the investigator’s hypothesis.

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22
Q

Negativistic participant

A

These participants have identified the hypothesis of the study and are trying to act contrary to the investigator’s hypothesis.

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23
Q

Informed consent

A

APA principle which requires the investigator to provide all available information about a study so that an individual can make a rational, informed decision to participate in the study.

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24
Q

Three components of informed consent

A

Information, understanding, and voluntary participation

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25
Deception
Occurs when a researcher purposefully withholds information or misleads participants with regard to information about a study.
26
Passive deception
The withholding or omitting of information; the researcher intentionally does not tell participants some information about the study.
27
Active deception
The presenting of misinformation about the study to participants.
28
Confidentiality
The practice of keeping strictly secret and private the information or measurements obtained from an individual during a research study.
29
Population
The entire set of individuals of interest to a researcher.
30
Sample
A set of individuals selected from a population and usually is intended to represent the population in a research study.
30
Sample
A set of individuals selected from a population and usually is intended to represent the population in a research study.
31
Non-probability sampling
The population is not completely known, individual probabilities cannot be known, and the sampling method is based on factors such as commonsense or ease, with an effort to maintain representativeness and avoid bias.
32
Convenience sampling
Researchers simply use as participants those individuals who are easy to get.
33
Probability sampling
The entire population is known, each individual in the population has a specifiable probability of selection, and sampling occurs by a random process based on the probabilities.
34
Simple random sampling
A probability sampling technique in which each individual in the population has an equal and independent chance of selection.
35
Systematic sampling
A probability sampling technique in which a sample is obtained by selecting every nth participant from a list containing the total population after a random starting point.
36
Stratified random sampling
A probability sampling technique that involves identifying specific subgroups to be included in the sample and then selecting equal-sized random samples from each pre-identified subgroup.
37
Cluster sampling
A probability sampling technique involving random selection of groups instead of individuals from a population.
38
Descriptive research strategy
A general approach to research that involves measuring a variable or set of variables as they exist naturally to produce a description of individual variables as they exist within a specific group, but does not attempt to describe or explain relationships between variables.
39
Experimental research strategy
A research strategy that attempts to establish the existence of a cause-and-effect relationship between two variables by manipulating one variable while measuring the second variable and controlling all other variables.
40
Quasi-experimental research strategy
A research strategy that attempts to limit threats to internal validity and produce cause-and-effect conclusions, but lacks one of the critical components (either manipulation or control) that is necessary for a true experiment. Typically compares groups or conditions that are defined with a nonmanipulated variable.
41
Non-experimental research strategy
A research strategy that attempts to demonstrate a relationship between two variables by comparing different groups of scores, but makes no attempt to minimize threats to internal validity or to explain the relationship.
42
Correlational research strategy
A general approach to research that involves measuring two or more variables for each individual to describe the relationship between the variables. The measurements are reviewed to identify any patterns of relationship that exist between the variables and to measure the strength of the relationship; however, no attempt is made to explain the relationship.
43
External validity
The extent to which we can generalize the results of a research study to people, settings, times, measures, and characteristics other than those used in that study.
44
Internal validity
The extent to which a research study produces a single, unambiguous explanation for the relationship between two variables.
45
Time-related variables
Environmental or participant variables that change over time. A threat to internal validity of studies that compare measures of the same individuals taken at different times.
46
Maturation
A threat to internal validity from any physiological or psychological changes that occur in a participant during the time that research study is being conducted and that can influence the participant's scores.
47
History
A threat to internal validity from any outside event that influences the participants' scores in one treatment differently than in another treatment.
48
Instrumentation
A threat to internal validity from changes in the measurement instrument that occur during the time a research study is being conducted. Also known as instrumental bias or instrumental decay.
49
Independent variable
In an experiment, the variable manipulated by the researcher.
50
Dependent variable
In an experiment, the variable that is observed for changes to assess the effects of manipulating the independent variable.
51
Extraneous variable
Any variable that exists within a study other than the variables being studied.
52
Confounding variable
An extraneous variable (usually unmonitored) that is allowed to change systematically along with the two variables being studied.
53
Manipulation
In an experiment, identifying the specific values of the independent variable to be examined and then creating treatment conditions corresponding to each of these values.
54
Three criteria for causation
Covariance, temporal precedence, and no alternative explanation
55
How to control for extraneous variables
1. Holding a variable constant 2. Matching values across conditions 3. Random assignment
56
Between-subjects experimental design
An experimental design using a separate, independent group of individuals for each treatment condition being compared. Also known as an independent-measures experimental design.
57
Within-subjects experimental design
An experimental design in which the same group of individuals participates in all of the different treatment conditions.
58
Advantages of between-subjects design
Participants start out fresh
59
Advantages of within-subjects design
1. Requires fewer people | 2. Eliminates problems associated with individual differences
60
Disadvantages of between-subjects design
1. Requires large numbers of participants 2. Each condition is composed of different individuals 3. Sometimes lacks context 4. Other threats to internal validity
61
Disadvantages of within-subjects design
1. Time-related threats 2. Order effects 3. Sometimes it is impossible or impractical
62
Counterbalancing
In a within-subjects design, a procedure to minimize threats from order effects and time-related factors by changing the order in which treatment conditions are administered from one participant to another so that the treatment conditions are matched with respect to time.
63
Directionality problem
Demonstrating that changes in one variable tend to be accompanied by changes in another variable simply establishes that the two variables are related. The remaining problem is to determine which variable is the cause and which is the effect.
64
Third-variable problem
The possibility that two variables appear to be related when, in fact, they are both influenced by a third variable that causes them to vary together.
65
Positive relationship
A relationship in which the two variables or measurements tend to change together in the same direction.
66
Negative relationship
A relationship in which the two variables or measurements tend to change together in opposite directions.
67
Criterion variable
In a correlational study, a researcher often is interested in the relationship between two variables to use knowledge about one variable to help predict or explain the second variable. In this situation, the second variable (being explained or predicted) is called the criterion variable.
68
Predictor variable
In a correlational study, a researcher often is interested in the relationship between two variables to use knowledge about one variable to help predict or explain the second variable. In this situation, the first variable is called the predictor variable.
69
Replication
Publicly repeating a study by copying the methods exactly
70
Divergent validity
A type of validity demonstrated by using two different methods to measure two different constructs. Convergent validity then must be shown for each of the two constructs. Finally, there should be little or no relationship between the scores obtained for the two different constructs when they are measured by the same method.
71
Predictive validity
The type of validity demonstrated when scores obtained from a measure accurately predict behavior according to a theory.
72
Ordinal scale
A scale of measurement on which the categories have different names and are organized sequentially (for example, first, second, third).
73
Ratio scale
A scale of measurement in which the categories are sequentially organized, all categories are the same size, and the zero point is absolute or nonarbitrary, and indicates a complete absence of variable being measured.
74
Interval scale
A scale of measurement in which the categories are organized sequentially and all categories are the same size. The zero point of an interval scale is arbitrary and does not indicate a total absence of the variable being measured.
75
Nuremberg code
A set of 10 guidelines for the ethical treatment of human participants in research. The Nuremberg code, developed from the Nuremberg Trials in 1947, laid the groundwork for the current ethical standards for medical and psychological research.
76
Confederate
A person who pretends to be a participant in a research study but actually is working for the researcher to create a false environment.
77
Quota sampling
A nonprobability sampling method; a type of convenience sampling involving identifying specific subgroups to be included in the same and then establishing quotas for individuals to be sampled from each group.
78
Research design
A general plan for implementing a research strategy. A research design specifies whether the study will involve groups or individual subjects, will make comparisons within a group or between groups, or specifies how many variables will be included in the study.
79
No-treatment control condition
In an experiment, a group or condition in which the participants do not receive the treatment being evaluated.
80
Placebo control condition
A group or condition in which the participants receive a placebo instead of the actual treatment.
81
Resentful demoralization
A threat to internal validity that occurs when an untreated group learns of special treatment given to another group, and becomes less productive and less motivated because they resent the other group's expected superiority.
82
Practice
A threat to internal validity that occurs when prior participation in a treatment condition or measurement procedure provides participants with additional skills that influence their performance on subsequent measurements. An example of an order effect.

Research Design (1 decks)

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