Final exam Flashcards
(112 cards)
1
Q
What parts of a neuron make up the input zone?
A
soma and dendrites
2
Q
What part of a neuron make up the integration zone?
A
axon hillock
3
Q
What part of a neuron makes up the conduction zone?
A
axon
4
Q
What part of a neuron makes up the output zone?
A
synaptic terminals
5
Q
Define the soma
A
Nucleus of the axon
6
Q
Define the axon
A
Where neurons receive information and bind to NT’s released from other neurons.
7
Q
Define the axon hillock
A
Decides if there should be an action potential
8
Q
Define the synaptic terminal
A
Where neurons communicate with each other.
9
Q
Define a node of raniver
A
Gap between segments of myelin, where an axon is exposed.
10
Q
Define sensory neurons
A
Are specialized to gather sensory information and have diverse shapes depending on what sense they detect.
11
Q
Define motor neurons
A
Large and have long axons reaching out to synapses on muscles, causing muscular contractions.
12
Q
What is the function of oligodendrocytes?
A
They wrap around axons to myelinate them in the central nervous system (CNS).
13
Q
What is the function of schwann cells?
A
They myelinate axons in the peripheral nervous system (PNS).
14
Q
What are the functions of astrocytes?
A
They weave around and between neurons and fine blood vessels controlling the amount of blood flow reaching active brain regions. Also remove waste, extra ions, NTS, and form scars.
15
Q
What/where is the blood brain barrier?
A
Protects neurons from components in the blood (virus or bacteria). Cells of capillary walls(endothelial cells) form tight conjunctions. Astrocytes surround the endothelial cells. BBB lets through small uncharged molecules and blocks charged molecules, viruses, and bacteria.
16
Q
What is gray matter?
A
somas and dendrites
17
Q
What is white matter?
A
axons
18
Q
What are the three primary divisions of the brain?
A
Forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain.
19
Q
What/where is the medulla?
A
The bottom of the brainstem that controls vital reflexes.
20
Q
What/where is the pons?
A
The middle structure of the brainstem that is involved in REM sleep and the production of NE(locus coeruleus).
21
Q
What/where is the cerebellum?
A
Back of the brainstem that does coordination, movement, balance, postural control, and some cognitive function.
22
Q
What/where is the midbrain?
A
Above the pons on the brainstem that does reflexive orienting to stimuli, descending pain control system, two major sources of dopamine (VTA and substantia nigra).
23
Q
What/where is the thalamus?
A
To the right/above the hypothalamus and is the relay station/ filter for sensory information going to cortex.
24
Q
What/where is the hypothalamus?
A
It is above the midbrain and controls drive-related behaviors and maintenance of homeostasis.
25
What/where is the pituitary gland?
It is to the left of the hypothalamus and is a hormone producing part of the endocrine system that releases hormones into the bloodstream. Controlled and attached to the hypothalamus.
26
What/where is the corpus collosum?
It is the round structure surrounding the middle of the brain that is cortex that is a huge bundle of axons that connect the two hemispheres of the brain.
27
What does the hippocampus do?
Memory
28
What does the amygdala do?
Emotion
29
What structures make up the limbic system?
Amygdala, thalamus, hypothalamus, and the basal ganglia.
30
What is the general function of cranial nerves?
They help you taste, smell, and feel sensations. There are 12 pairs of them (ex-sensory and motor for head and face).
31
What is the basil ganglia?
Interconnected structures for the facilitation of movement, cognition, and emotion.
32
Describe the occipital lobe.
In the back of the brain and contains the primary visual cortex.
33
Describe the temporal lobe.
The bottom part of the brain that contains the primary auditory cortex, wernikes area-language comprehension, and the visual association cortex- object recognition including faces.
34
Describe the parietal lobe.
The middle section of the brain that contains the primary somatosensory cortex-1st to process touch, pain, and temp from the opposite side of the body.
35
Describe the frontal lobe.
The front lobe of the brain that contains the primary motor cortex-motor control, the PFC- executive functions, and Broca's area-language production.
36
What are ventricles and what is in them?
They are cavities within the brain that are full of cerebrospinal fluid.
37
What/where are the meninges?
They stabilize and protect the CNS. There are 3 layers: dura matter, arachnoid matter, and pia matter.
38
What/where are ions present when the cell is at rest?
A- and K+ are present within the cell and Na+ and Cl- are present outside the cell.
39
What are voltage-gated channels?
They are gated by a voltage across the membrane and you find them on the axon hillock.
40
Describe the steps of an action potential.
Sodium moves into the cell (depolarization), then big depolarization and sodium moves in, potassium moves out of the cell (repolarization), and hyperpolarization as so much potassium moves out of the cell.
41
How does an AP start?
Starts when different ions cross the neuron membrane, then a stimulus causes sodium channels to open, then because there are more sodium ions on the outside and the inside is negative they rush into the cell.
42
What channels is AP dependent on?
Voltage-gated Na+ channel and a voltage-gated K+ channel.
43
What voltage is the resting potential?
-60mv
44
What voltage is threshold?
-40mv
45
What does the sodium/potassium pump do?
If the axon depolarizes to threshold (-40mv), voltage-gated sodium channels open as sodium rushes into the cell and becomes depolarized. Then voltage gated potassium channels close and that part of membrane returns to resting potential.
46
What does it mean that an action potential is "all or none"?
Neuron either does not reach threshold or a full action potential is fired.
47
What is saltatory conduction?
The way an electrical impulse skips from node to node, down the full length of an axon to speed the arrival of impulse.
48
Where is the dorsal horn?
Top right of the spinal nerve for sensory nerves.
49
Where is the ventral horn?
bottom right of the spinal nerve for motor nerves.
50
Where is the dorsal root ganglion?
Top left bump or the dorsal root.
51
Where is the spinal nerve?
In between nerve of the dorsal and ventral roots.
52
Describe the sensory nerves.
In the dorsal root
53
Describe the motor nerves.
Motor commands leave from the ventral portion of spine and muscles.
54
What structures comprise the CNS?
The brain and spinal cord.
55
How is the PNS subdivided?
PNS-autonomic NS and somatic NS. Autonomic (internal organs and glands)-sympathetic and parasympathetic. Somatic NS(sense organs and voluntary muscles)-Sensory NS and Motor NS.
56
Role of the somatic NS?
nerves convey info from sense organs to CNS to muscles.
57
Role of the sympathetic NS?
Activated as a whole unit with acetylcholine and NE. "fight or flight"
58
Role of the autonomic NS?
automatic control of visceral organs and glands. Not voluntary or conscious (hypothalamus).
59
Role of parasympathetic NS?
Independent control over target organs. "rest and digest" Acetylcholine only.
60
What are ligand-gated channels?
Are ionotropic receptors that is the binding of a ligand to binding site that opens/closes a channel.
61
What is an excitatory synapse?
Increases the activity of receiving neurons(glutamate ions).
62
What is an inhibitory synapse?
Reduce neuron activity(GABA).
63
How do EPSP and IPSPs differ from APs?
synaptic potentials require ligand-gated channels while APs require voltage-gated channels.
64
What is the difference between an ionotropic receptor and metabotropic receptor?
Ionotropic receptors are free passing, while metabotropic receptors have a g-protein.
65
What is the most common excitatory neurotransmitter?
glutamate-memory formation
66
What is the most common inhibitory neurotransmitter?
GABA-gaba-a targeted with anxiety in benzos, gaba-b is metabotropic.
67
How are NTs cleared from the cell?
Absorption by glia, enzymatic degradation, and reuptake by presynaptic terminal.
68
What are Catecholamines?
Dopamine, Norepinephrine, and epinephrine.
69
What are the monoamines?
Dopamine, NE, epinephrine, and serotonin.
70
Define agonist.
A drug that mimics or increases the effects of a NT (many antidepressants block serotonin reuptake).
71
Define antagonist.
A drug that blocks the effects of a NT (many antipsychotics block dopamine receptors)
72
Major source of dopamine.
VTA and substancia nigra
73
Major source of NE
Locus coeruleus
74
Describe SSRIs
inhibit the reuptake of serotonin, therefore increasing serotonin activity
75
Describe SNRIs
Inhibit the reuptake of serotonin and NE, increasing their availability
76
Describe MAOIs
Antidepressant that prevents the breakdown of serotonin, dopamine, and NE
77
What are antipsychotic drugs used to treat?
They block the d2 receptor for treatment of schizophrenia(antagonist).
78
Where do drugs of abuse cause release?
Dopamine release in the nucelus acumbens.
79
Know some examples of stimulant drugs and what NTs they release.
Nicotine activates nicotinic acetylcholine receptors(agonist) and activates the autonomic NS. Cocaine blocks the dopamine and NE transporter making it available for longer.
80
Know some examples of opiates and what receptors they use.
They are narcotic pain killers such as morphine, fentanyl, oxycontin, and oxycodone. They are a mu-opiod receptor agonist.
81
What is the endogenous ligand of opiods?
endorphins, enkephaline, and dymorphins.
82
What does alcohol do to GABA and glutamate transmission?
Alcohol is a stimulant, then depressant that is a GABA receptor agonist and a glutamate receptor antagonist.
83
What is sensitization?
Inverse tolerance
84
What is tolerance?
decreased sensitivity to a drug as a consequence of repeated exposure.
85
Contrast metabolic tolerance and functional tolerance.
Metabolic tolerance is when less drug is getting to the site of action, while functional tolerance is when there is decreased responsiveness at site of action(fewer receptors, decreased efficiency, and receptors less responsive)
86
How does brain respond to natural reinforcers?
It releases dopamine
87
For what purpose is methadone used?
It is taken to combat heroin addiction
88
For what purpose is naloxone/narcan used?
It is an opiod receptor antagonist that stops opiod overdose.
89
For what purpose is antabuse used?
It blocks the metabolism of alcohol to make you sick if you drink.
90
Define epigenetics.
It says that the structure of DNA has implications for whether or not a gene is turned on. Structure is influenced by experience.
91
What is transduction and what cells are responsible for it?
Transforming physical energy into the world(like photons) into electrical energy in our bodies for AP. It is the job of receptor cells to send to sensory organs.
92
What is the role of the brainstem in sensory processing?
processing for reflexive responses to stimulus.
93
What is the role of cortex in sensory processing?
Primary visual cortex is the first to process visual info and primary sensory cortex is for conscious recognition.
94
What are photoreceptors called and which is for color vision.
They are called rods and cones. Cones are for color vision and detail vision(high-acuity). Rods are high sensitivity to light.
95
What are the optic nerves?
Axons of retinal ganglion cells form optic nerves which leaves back of eye and goes to brain. Firing rate is related to brightness.
96
What are the optic chiasm?
Where the optic nerves converge and axons cross to another hemisphere.
97
What is the optic tracts?
Same axons as the optic nerve but on other side of optic chiasm. Has axons from each eye.
98
What are the "what" and "where" pathways?
The "what" pathway is the ventral stream for visual pattern recognition on the temporal lobe of the brain. The "where" pathways is the dorsal stream that is in the occipital lobe for visual spatial perception.
99
What brain region controls hormone release from pituitary gland?
Hypothalamus
100
How are hormones transported around the body?
Secreted into the blood then, circulated throughout the body.
101
Name some endocrine organs
adrenal glands, gonads(tested/ovaries), pituitary gland, and pineal gland.
102
What is the HPA axis?
The bodies stress response. CRF-anterior pituitary-ACTH-adrenal cortex-cortisol-acts in body and brain.
103
What is the HPG (gonads) axis?
GnRH-pituitary-LH and FSH-testes(DHT and T) and ovaries (estrodiol and preogesterone).
104
What is the HPT(thyroid) axis?
TSH RH-anterior pituitary-TSH-Thyroid_T3 and T4- throughout body.
105
Describe the cycles of the menstrual cycle.
Comes from the ovaries and follicle surrounding egg eventually becomes corpus luteum.
106
Two posterior pituitary hormones?
Oxytocin: milk letdown, social bonding, and olfactory memory
Vasopressin: water conservation, high BP, and social bonding.
107
Know the difference between organizational and activational effects of hormones.
Organizational is permanent development of characteristic differentiation of the sexes. Activational is temporary reproduction related behaviors like menstrual cycle.
108
Difference between Y genes on males.
SRY gene on y chromosome triggers the synthesis of SRY protein: testes determining factor-gonads develop as testes
109
What are the 3 hormones produced by the developing testes?
Anti-mullerian hormone to cause regression of mullerian ducts. Testosterone to promote development of wolffian ducts anf DHT for development of male external genitalia.
110
Define and provide an example of an intersex condition.
It is ambiguous sexual development. Androgen insensitivity syndrome: Mutation is gene for androgen receptor-inability to respond to DHT and T-feminization of genetic male.
111
What part of the brain is involved in all aspects of homeostasis?
Hypothalamus
112
Sodium specific hunger
arcuate nucleus
