Final Exam Flashcards
(142 cards)
1
Q
Mark of a Criminal - Pager
A
Experiment Design used
Dependent variable: criminal record and race
Experimental groups: testers - 2 white males and 2 black males, paired by race
Control groups: the white males with no criminal records
Did it use random assignment for experimental and control groups? No. They had to choose very specific characteristics in the 4 men of the study so the only difference to the employer would be their race and/or their criminal record
One main result: a criminal record reduces the number of callbacks by 50%
One limitation/ethical concern: manipulating the work histories of both criminal and non criminal testers so the long absence of a job while incarcerated did not create bias on the part of the employer
2
Q
Gendered Interpretations of Job Loss - Rao
Methods used?
Sample probability or nonprobability?
Sample size?
Type of data collected?
What type of analysis used?
One main results?
One limitation/ethical concern?
A
- Qualitative Methods used
- random sample of unemployed professionals recruited from random job searching/career building sites in the US
- less than 50
- in depth interviews and follow-up interviews on unemployed men and unemployed women as two different groups
- Qualitative Analysis
- unemployed men viewed their job loss as an expected aspect of paid work while women viewed their job loss as an opportunity to start over/find a new career
- that job loss could be shaped by the intersections of other aspects other than gender, such as race, social class or sexual orientation.
3
Q
Nuremberg War Crime Trials
A
Exposed medical experiments conducted by Nazi doctors in the name of “science”
4
Q
Milgram’s obedience experiments
A
experiment to determine the likelihood of people following orders from an authority despite their own sentiments; widely cited as helping to understand the emergence of phenomena such as Nazism and mass cults.
5
Q
Tuskegee Study
A
U.S. Public Health Service study of the “natural” course of syphilis of low-income African American men for 40 years without providing them with penicillin, even after the drug was discovered to treat the illness
6
Q
Belmont Report
A
Guidelines developed by the U.S. National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research in 1979 for the protection of human subjects.
7
Q
Respect for persons
A
Belmont report coined.
the ethical principle of treating persons as autonomous agents and protecting those with diminished autonomy in research involving human subjects.
8
Q
Beneficence
A
Belmont report -
minimizing possible harms and maximizing benefits in research involving human subjects.
9
Q
Justice
A
Belmont report -
being upfront about what the risks and benefits of the study are
10
Q
Federal Policy for the Protection of Human Subjects
A
Belmont Report coined.
regulations by the US dept. of health & human services AND FDA
11
Q
Code of ethics
A
Professional codes adopted by professional associations of social scientists for the treatment of human subjects by members, employees, and students and designed to comply with federal policy.
12
Q
Debriefing
A
A researcher’s informing subjects after an experiment about the experiment’s purposes and methods and evaluating subjects’ personal reactions to the experiment.
13
Q
Conflict of interest
A
When a researcher has a significant financial stake in the design or outcome of his or her own research.
14
Q
Deception
A
Used in social experiments to create more “realistic” treatments in which the true purpose of the research is not disclosed to participants, often within the confines of a laboratory.
15
Q
Zimbardo’s prison simulation study
A
Stanford University, Philip Zimbardo
designed to investigate the impact of social position on behavior—specifically, the impact of being either a guard or a prisoner; widely cited as demonstrating the likelihood of emergence of sadistic behavior in guards.
16
Q
Certificate of Confidentiality
A
A certificate issued to a researcher by the National Institutes of Health that ensures the right to protect information obtained about high-risk populations or behaviors—except child abuse or neglect—from legal subpoenas.
17
Q
IRB
A
Institutional Review Board -
federal law - review the ethical issues in all proposed research that is federally funded, involves human subjects, or has any potential for harm to human subjects.
18
Q
Office for Protection From Research Risks, National Institutes of Health
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS)
A
provides leadership and supervision about the protection of the rights, welfare, and well-being of subjects involved in research conducted or supported by DHHS, including monitoring IRBs.
19
Q
Ethical Principles goals:
A
- achieving valid results
- honesty and openness
- protecting research participants
- obtain informed consent
- avoid deception in research, except in limited circumstances
- maintain privacy and confidentiality
- consider uses of research so that benefits outweigh risks
20
Q
Conceptualization
A
The process of specifying what we mean by a term.
21
Q
Concept
A
A mental image that summarizes a set of similar observations, feelings, or ideas.
22
Q
Key concepts in sociology
A
- poverty
- youth gangs
- trust
23
Q
Operationalization
A
Specifying the measures that will indicate the value of cases on a variable.
24
Q
Indicator
A
The question or other operation used to indicate the value of cases on a variable.
25
Constant
A number that has a fixed value in a given situation; a characteristic or value that does not change.
26
Measurement
Linking abstract concepts to empirical indicants.
Also, the procedures used to identify the empirical variation in a concept of interest.
27
Closed-ended (fixed-choice) question
preformatted response choices for the respondent to circle or check
28
Measurement alternatives
1. asking questions
2. making observations
3. collecting unobtrusive measures
4. coding content
5. taking pictures
6. combining measurement operations
29
Mutually exclusive
when every case can be classified as having only one attribute (or value).
30
Exhaustive
when a questions responses choices cover all possible responses.
31
Open ended question
A survey question to which the respondent replies in his or her own words, either by writing or by talking.
32
types of questions we can ask
1. close ended/fixed choice
2. mutually exclusive
3. exhaustive
4. open ended
33
unobtrusive measure
A measurement based on physical traces or other data that are collected without the knowledge or participation of the individuals or groups that generated the data.
34
levels of measurements
1. nominal level
2. ordinal level
3. interval/ratio level
4. dichotomy
5. comparison levels
35
nominal level of measurement
Variables whose values have no mathematical interpretation; they vary in kind or quality, but not in amount.
36
Ordinal level of measurement
A measurement of a variable in which the numbers indicating a variable’s values specify only the order of the cases, permitting greater than and less than distinctions.
37
Discrete measure
A measure that classifies cases in distinct categories.
38
Interval/ratio level of measurement
A measurement of a variable in which the numbers indicating a variable’s values represent FIXED measurement units. They may or may not have an absolute, or fixed, zero point.
39
Continuous measure
A measure with numbers indicating the values of variables as points on a CONTINUUM
40
dichotomy
a variable having only 2 values
41
units of analysis
The level of social life on which a measure is focused, such as individuals, groups, towns, or nations.
42
ecological fallacy
An error in reasoning in which incorrect conclusions about individual-level processes are drawn from group-level data
43
reductionist fallacy (reductionism)
An error in reasoning that occurs when incorrect conclusions about group-level processes are based on individual-level data; also known as an INDIVIDUALIST fallacy.
44
measurement validities:
1. face validity
2. content validity
3. criterion validity
4. construct validity
45
face validity
The type of validity that exists when an inspection of items used to measure a concept suggests that they are appropriate “on their face.”
46
content validity
The type of validity that exists when the full range of a concept’s meaning is covered by the measure.
47
Criterion validity
The type of validity that is established by comparing the scores obtained on the measure being validated with those obtained with a more direct or already validated measure of the same phenomenon (the criterion)
48
Concurrent validity (part of criterion)
The type of validity that exists when scores on a measure are closely related to scores on a criterion measured at the same time
49
Predictive validity (part of criterion)
The type of validity that exists when a measure predicts scores on a criterion measured in the future.
50
construct validity
The type of validity that is established by showing that a measure is related to other measures as specified in a theory.
51
reliability
A measurement procedure yields consistent scores when the phenomenon being measured is not changing.
52
test-retest reliability
A measurement showing that measures of a phenomenon at two points in time are highly correlated, if the phenomenon has not changed, or has changed only as much as the measures have changed.
53
index
the sum or average of responses to a set of questions about a concept
54
interitem reliability
An approach that calculates reliability based on the correlation among multiple items used to measure a single concept; also known as internal consistency.
55
Interobserver reliability
When similar measurements are obtained by different observers rating the same persons, events, or places.
56
aspects of measurement reliability
1. test-retest
2. index
3. interitem
4. interobserver
57
Sample planning
1. defining sample components and the population
2. evaluating generalizability
58
population
The entire set of individuals or other entities to which study findings are to be generalized
59
Sample
A subset of a population that is used to study the population as a whole
60
Elements
The individual members of the population whose characteristics are to be measured.
61
Sampling frame
a list of all elements or other units containing the elements in a population
62
sampling units
units listed at each stage of a multistage sampling design
63
sampling error
Any difference between the characteristics of a sample and the characteristics of a population; the larger the sampling error, the less representative the sample.
64
target population
A set of elements larger than or different from the population sampled and to which the researcher would like to generalize study findings.
65
Representative sample
A sample that “looks like” the population from which it was selected in all respects potentially relevant to the study.
In an unrepresentative sample, some characteristics are overrepresented or underrepresented.
66
census
Research in which information is obtained through responses from or information about all available members of an entire population.
67
sampling methods
1. probability sampling
2. nonprobability sampling
3. probability of selection
4. nonrespondents
68
Probability sampling method:
A sampling method that relies on a random, or chance, selection method so that the probability of selection of population elements is known.
69
Nonprobability sampling method:
A sampling method in which the probability of selection of population elements is unknown.
70
Probability of selection:
The likelihood that an element will be selected from the population for inclusion in the sample.
71
Nonrespondents:
People or other entities who do not participate in a study although they are selected for the sample.
72
probability sampling methods
1. systematic bias
2. random sampling
73
systematic bias:
Overrepresentation or underrepresentation of some population characteristics in a sample resulting from the method used to select the sample; a sample shaped by systematic sampling error is a biased sample.
74
random sampling methods
1. simple random
2. random number table
3. random digit dialing
4. systematic random
5. stratified random
6. proportionate stratified
7. disproportionate stratified
8. cluster sampling
75
Simple random sampling:
Sampling in which every sample element is selected only on the basis of chance, through a random process
76
Random number table:
A table containing lists of numbers that are ordered solely on the basis of chance; it is used for drawing a random sample.
77
Random digit dialing:
The random dialing of numbers within designated phone prefixes by a machine, which creates a random sample for phone surveys.
78
Systematic random sampling:
Sampling in which sample elements are selected from a list or from sequential files, with every nth element being selected after the first element is selected randomly within the first interval.
79
Sampling interval:
The number of cases from one sampled case to another in a systematic random sample.
80
Periodicity:
A sequence of elements (in a list to be sampled) that varies in some regular, periodic pattern.
81
Stratified random sampling:
Sampling in which sample elements are selected separately from population strata that are identified in advance by the researcher.
82
Proportionate stratified sampling:
Sampling method in which elements are selected from strata in exact proportion to their representation in the population.
83
Disproportionate stratified sampling:
Sampling in which elements are selected from strata in different proportions from those that appear in the population.
84
Cluster sampling:
Sampling in which elements are selected in two or more stages, with the first stage being the random selection of naturally occurring clusters and the last stage being the random selection of elements within clusters.
85
Cluster
A naturally occurring, mixed aggregate of elements of the population
86
Inferential statistics:
tool for estimating how likely it is that a statistical result based on data from a random sample is representative of the population from which the sample is assumed to have been selected.
87
Random sampling error (chance sampling error):
Differences between the population and the sample that are due only to chance factors (random error), not to systematic sampling error.
88
Sample statistic:
The value of a statistic, such as a mean, computed from sample data
89
Population parameter:
The value of a statistic, such as a mean, computed using the data for the entire population; a sample statistic is an estimate of a population parameter.
90
nonprobability sampling methods
1. availability sampling
2. quota sampling
3.purposive sampling
4. snowball sampling
91
Availability sampling:
Sampling in which elements are selected on the basis of convenience.
92
Quota sampling:
sampling method in which elements are selected to ensure that the sample represents certain characteristics in proportion to their prevalence in the population.
93
Purposive sampling:
A nonprobability sampling method in which elements are selected for a purpose, usually because of their unique position.
94
Snowball sampling:
Sampling in which sample elements are selected as they are identified by successive informants or interviewees.
95
Descriptive statistics:
Statistics used to describe the distribution of and relationship between variables.
96
displaying distribution of single variables:
1. frequency distributions
2. graphs
97
Frequency distribution:
Numerical display showing the number of cases, and usually the percentage of cases (the relative frequencies), corresponding to each value or group of values of a variable.
98
Base number (N):
The total number of cases in a distribution.
99
Histogram:
A graphic for quantitative variables, in which the variable’s distribution is displayed with adjacent bars.
100
Bar chart:
A graphic for qualitative variables, in which the variable’s distribution is displayed with solid bars separated by spaces.
101
Frequency polygon:
A graphic for quantitative variables, in which a continuous line connects data points representing the variable’s distribution.
102
summary statistics, useful for representing key features of the distribution of a variable:
1. central tendency
2. variability
3. skewness
103
Central tendency:
The most common value (for variables measured at the nominal level) or the value around which cases tend to center (for a quantitative variable).
104
Variability:
The extent to which cases are spread out through the distribution or clustered in just one location.
105
Skewness:
The extent to which cases are clustered more at one or the other end of the distribution of a quantitative variable rather than in a symmetric pattern around its center.
Skew can be positive (a right skew), with the number of cases tapering off in the positive direction, or negative (a left skew), with the number of cases tapering off in the negative direction. Skewness does not apply to qualitative variables (those measured at the nominal level).
106
measures of central tendency
1. mode
2. median
3. mean
107
measures of variation
1. range
2. standard deviation
108
2 types of mode
1. bimodal: two nonadjacent categories with about the same number of cases
2. unimodal: only one value that is the most frequent
109
mode:
probability average
110
median:
position average
111
mean:
weighted average
112
range:
highest value - lowest value +1
113
outlier:
an exceptionally high or low value in distribution
114
interquartile range
range between the end of the first quartile and beginning of third quartile
115
quartile
point in a distribution corresponding to first 25% of case, first 50% of cases and first 75% of cases
116
standard deviation:
square root of average squared deviation of each case from the mean
117
variance
A statistic that measures the variability of a distribution as the average squared deviation of each case from the mean.
118
normal distribution
A symmetric, bell-shaped distribution that results from chance variation around a central value.
119
crosstab/contingency table
a bivariate (two-variable) distribution, showing the distribution of one variable for each category of another variable; can be elaborated using three or more variables.
120
marginal distribution
The summary distributions in the margins of a cross-tabulation that correspond to the frequency distribution of the row variable and of the column variable.
121
chi-square
An inferential statistic used to test hypotheses about relationships between two or more variables in a cross-tabulation.
122
statistical significance
The mathematical likelihood that an association is due to chance
123
most important feature of qualitative data analysis
the focus on text
124
qualitative data tends to be _____
inductive
125
5 techniques of qualitative data
1. documentation/data collection
2. organization/categorization
3. examination
4. corroboration
5. reflection
126
documentation/data collection
mostly in the form of jotting notes. comes from observations and conversations
127
organization/categorization
also known as coding.
identifying and refining important concepts so they can be easily interpreted.
128
types of coding
1. descriptive - short labels
2. interpretive - meaning shared among text segments
3. thematic - overarching themes
129
examination
centerpiece of analytic process - allows researcher to move from simple descriptions to explanations of why
130
corroboration
authenticity as a standard for evaluating conclusions
131
reflection
on the researcher's role - Confidence in the conclusions from a field research study is also strengthened by an honest and informative account about how the researcher interacted with subjects in the field, what problems he or she encountered, and how these problems were or were not resolved.
132
tacit knowledge
In field research, a credible sense of understanding of social processes that reflects the researcher’s awareness of participants’ actions as well as their words and of what they fail to state, feel deeply, and take for granted.
133
alternative in qualitative data analysis
1. grounded theory
2. conversation analysis
3. narrative analysis
4. case-oriented understanding
134
grounded theory
Systematic theory developed inductively, based on observations that are summarized into conceptual categories, reevaluated in the research setting, and gradually refined and linked to other conceptual categories.
135
conversation analysis
A qualitative method that analyzes the sequence and details of conversational text in order to understand how social reality is constructed.
136
narrative analysis
A form of qualitative analysis in which the analyst focuses on how respondents impose order on the flow of experience in their lives and thus make sense of events and actions in which they have participated.
137
case-oriented understanding
An understanding of social processes in a group, formal organization, community, or other collectivity that reflects accurately the standpoint of participants.
138
visual sociology
Sociological research in which the social world is “observed” and interpreted through photographs, films, and other images.
139
photo voice
A method in which research participants take pictures of their everyday surroundings with cameras the researcher distributes, and then meet in a group with the researcher to discuss the pictures’ meaning.
140
systematic observation
A strategy that increases the reliability of observational data by using explicit rules that standardize coding practices across observers.
141
Computer-assisted qualitative data analysis:
The use of special computer software to assist qualitative analyses through creating, applying, and refining categories; tracing linkages between concepts; and making comparisons between cases and events
142
ethics in qualitative analysis
1. intervention and advocacy
2. research integrity and quality
3. ownership of data and conclusions
4. use and misuse of results
