Final Exam Flashcards
(484 cards)
1
Q
Breath of Life Theory
A
Humans in an interconnected web of reality; INDG perspective, community-based approach
2
Q
Socrates
A
objects are learned and grouped in memory, based on functionality (context)
3
Q
Socrates
A
When you see a Prius vs. Dodge Ram; you can group them together as “vehicles”
4
Q
Plato
A
Memory like wax; eventually our mind had metaphorical indentations in it from learning
5
Q
Aristotle
A
Memory is compartmentalized; hierarchical
6
Q
Aristotle’s Association
A
different mechanisms for learning; similarity, contiguity, causality
7
Q
Similarity
A
You have an argument with someone while you’re in a bad mood - associate past memories with the present argument; memories are highly interconnected based on this
8
Q
Contiguity
A
golden arches and hamburgers (McDonalds)
8
Q
Contiguity
A
When things appear to us, they might remind us of something else
8
Q
Causality
A
Something is always going to cause something else, an event that reliably produces another outcome
9
Q
Descartes
A
I think, therefore I am
9
Q
Empiricism
A
all the ideas we have are a result of experience
9
Q
Empiricism
A
Opposed to nativism
9
Q
Descartes
A
Mind-Body dualism; mind and body exist as separate entities
10
Q
Reflex Arc
A
Descartes; automatic pathway from sensory stimulus to a motor response
10
Q
John Locke
A
tabula rasa; blank slate
10
Q
John Locke
A
associationism; red + sweet = cherry
10
Q
Kant
A
born with biological capacity to interpret the world; nativism
11
Q
Kant
A
idealism - we make inferences, schema; abstract knowledge that is mentally formed of the external world (concept of truth)
12
Q
Hebbian Theory
A
When an axon of cell A is near enough to excite a cell B; and repeatedly takes part in firing it
13
Q
Some growth process or metabolic change takes place in one or both cells (i.e. A’s efficiency as one of the cells firing B)
A
Hebbian Theory
14
Q
Habituation
A
decreased gill withdrawal reflex in Aplysia
15
Q
Sensitization
A
shock, gentle touch in Aplysia
16
Q
Learning
A
Process by which changes (in behaviour) as a result of an organisms experience interacting with the world
17
Memory
Organism's internal record of past experiences acquired through learning
18
Humans are separated from animals by souls
Yes = Plato, Descartes
19
Humans are separated from animals by souls
No = Darwin
20
Nativism
Yes = Plato, Descartes, Kant
21
Nativism
Yes = Plato, Descartes, Kant
22
Nativism
No = Aristotle, Locke
23
What are the reasons Herman Ebbinghaus' research would not meet modern standards?
external validity, subject bias, blind design, experimenter bias
24
External validity
the applicability of results to a broader population
25
subject bias
influence of subject's prior knowledge or expectations on outcome of an experiment; conscious or unconscious
26
blind design
participants do not know the hypothesis being tested or their treatment group
27
experimenter bias
influence of experimenter's prior knowledge on outcome of an experiment
28
Cognition
Forms of knowing and awareness such as perceiving, remembering, reasoning, judging, imagining and problem solving
29
Embodied cognition
school of thought wherein cognition is centered around perception-action phenomenon
30
recency effect
the last words you viewed were the easiest ones to remember
31
primacy effect
words you see first are easier to remember
32
recency/primacy effect together
Forget the middle words
33
Dr. Mary Whiton Calkins
Paired-association technique, what has our biology evolved to learn best
34
Paired-association technique
cue hints at target word; cue is given - participants asked to recall target
35
conceptual connection
sun = beach
36
rhyming connection
fable = table
37
selective interference tasks
interrupt main task with a secondary task; dual task
38
memorizing a word list with simultaneous instrumental music or speech audio
dual task; selective interference tasks
39
implicit learning task
testing of incidental learning; below conscious awareness
40
Performance measurements
accuracy, efficiency
41
accuracy
percent correct, incorrect, missed; recall
42
efficiency
speed to correct response, response time, reaction time, response latency
43
mental chronometry
time required to process mental events
44
assumption with mental chronometry
faster = more efficient processing; stimulus - brain - output behaviour
45
testing implicit bias
automatically activated response occurring outside of conscious awareness
46
explicit bias
one that someone can choose to conceal, more likely to be expressed
47
harder to measure because of explicit bias
deception; because a person is aware of what they are doing
48
Implicit association test
measures the strength of associations between concepts and evaluations
49
IAT
measures not concerned with accuracy
50
adultification bias
perception that a child is older and more mature than their age
51
EOL
ease of learning; predict how easily you can learn new material
52
JOL
Judgement of learning; confidence in material previously studied
53
FOK
feeling of knowing
54
Computed tomography shows...
brain structure and anatomy
55
Magnetic Resonance imaging shows...
structure through magnetic fields/radio waves
56
Shows differences in topography (shape) and volume
CT and MRI
57
Electroencephalography
summative measure - not specific focus of the locus of where activity is coming from
58
EEG shows activity in....
real time; millivolts mV
59
Position emission tomography shows...
activity by monitoring oxygen
60
Patient ingests radioactive substance and activity shows up where that radioactive substance latches...
PET scan; it integrates into blood stream
61
Function MRI shows...
changes in oxygen levels to measure activity
62
fMRI
monitors the change in oxygen levels in the brain, i.e. the presence of blood; indirect measure of brain activity
63
metamemory judgements
what participants think of their own memory (confidence ratings); EOL, JOL, FOK
64
Specialized expertise is required for execution and analysis
con to using fMRI
65
high resolution imaging which provides a lot of data
pro to using fMRI
66
What variables cannot be controlled for using a within-subjects design?
Age, brain damage; i.e. you cannot make someone be 9 and 20 at the same time, you cannot make someone have brain damage and not have brain damage at the same time.
67
Quasi-independent vairable
when true random assignment is not possible
68
examples of quasi-independent variables
gender, brain damage, age; cannot randomly assign people to a brain damaged group
69
Internal validity
methodology
70
internal validity involves...
design and execution of the study
71
external validity involves...
the generalizability to other situations
72
ecological validity concerns...
the extent to which the experiment mirrors real-life situations/behaviours
73
Henry Holaison
lost ability to form new memories, retained knowledge of everything prior to surgery; conscious learning stopped
74
What is the CNS composed of?
Neurons
75
Designed for communication
axons and dendrites
76
dendrites
accept incoming information
77
where are neurotransmitter receptors located?
dendrites
78
send information to other cells
axons
79
play the role of accepting incoming information
the dendrites; like branches on a tree
80
neurotransmitter receptors
wait for molecules to land/chemically bind to them
81
action potential
starts at the neuron's cell body, chemical/electrical wave runs down the length of the axon
82
transmembrane channels
formed of g-protein coupled receptors
83
neurotransmission
axons carry electrical signals to other cells
84
synaptic potentials are...
graded
85
hyperpolarized between -50 and -80 mV at rest
neurons
86
neurons are...
negatively charged ions across the membrane
87
negatively charged molecules are
pushed out of the gates along the axon
88
positively charged molecules are...
drawn into the axons
89
passive maintenance
through pores
90
active maintenance
through pumps; requires energy
91
calcium
very important in the nervous system; important in release of neurotransmitters
92
voltage-gated calcium sensitive channels activate at terminal and neurotransmitter is released
during action potential when - charged molecules exit the neuron and + charged move into the neuron
93
neurotransmitters are created
inside the neurons that release them; contained in vesicles
94
synapse
the gap between the neuron and other cells
95
neurotransmitters that make the postsynaptic neuron less polarized
excitatory; closer to the threshold for firing
96
neurotransmitters that decrease the polarity of the postsynaptic neuron
inhibitory; less likely to fire
97
reuptake
when neurotransmitters may be reabsorbed by the original neuron
98
involved in diffusion across synapse
reuptake and degradation
99
nonassociative learning
learning in which only one stimulus is involved, learning comes from exposure to that stimulus
100
nonassociative learning in Aplysia
gill withdrawal reflex weakens if the siphon is touched repeatedly
101
habituation
decrease of a behavioural response to a stimulus after repeated
102
habituation in aplysia
delays between siphon taps bring back original strength of gill withdrawal reflex
103
spontaneous recovery
response reappears after a delay
104
sensitization
the increase of future responses, due to a previous experience
105
staggering stimuli
can result in strong responses
106
long term potentiation
when repeat stimulation of a neuron triggers stimulation of the next post-synaptic cell
107
LTP has
improved efficiency of neurotransmission
108
long term depression
decrease in neural response at a synapse i.e. habituation to a stimulus
109
LTD is
weakened neurotransmission at a synapse, i.e. decreased presence of synaptic receptors
110
What task will a baby stare at longer? impossible or possible scenario
impossible task
111
neurogenesis
the creation of new neurons
112
neurogenesis inadvertently creates
synapses (synaptogenesis)
113
pruning
destruction of unneccesary neural connections in the CNS
114
classical conditioning
simple associations between events, emotions and memories
115
how we learn to use a cue as a signal for what is about to happen
basic classical conditioning
116
who coined classical conditioning?
pavlov
117
cultural transmission
learning a behavior mostly through imitation; i.e. food sources, bird songs
118
pavlov's dogs
small amount of dilute acid on tongue = salivation, dogs would salivate before administration
119
unconditional stimulus
that elicits a response without training
120
UCS
the food in pavlov's dog experiment
121
unconditional response
does not require training to establish; innate
122
UCR
salivation in pavlov's dog experiment
123
conditional stimulus
previously neural stimulus that through training elicits a response
124
CS
the tone in pavlov's dog experiment; learned to associate the tone with being fed
125
repeatedly presenting the conditional stimulus without the unconditional stimulus
the response to the CS alone fades; CS as a cue is no longer predicitve
126
After a car accident, the person drives on the same road what is the UCS?
having had the accident on that road
127
After a car accident, the person drives on the same road what is the CS?
emotional response; i.e. fear and pain
128
training
present CS with UCS
129
conditional response
whose occurrence depends on particular conditions of training
130
CR in Aplysia
gill withdrawal reflex
131
neutral stimulus
before learning is the CS
132
delay conditioning
conditional stimulus (CS) prior to unconditional stimulus (UCS) onset
133
trace conditioning
CS terminated before UCS onset
134
is trace or delay conditioning weaker?
trace conditioning
135
simultaneous coniditoning
CS and UCS have the same onset/offset; no predictive value (no conditioning), not adaptive to learn about CS
136
backward conditioning
UCS is presented first then the CS is presented; no predicted value of UCS, may produce likelihood of UCS
137
strongest conditioning to CS occurs when
it is presented before UCS
138
saliency
does that stimulus actually mean something to me; i.e. that I have to pay attention to it, importance to me
139
why is conditional learning not permanent?
if CS no longer predicts UCS
140
extinction
repeated presentation of CS without UCS = decreased CR
141
car accident =
unconditional stimulus (UCS)
142
location of car accident
conditional stimulus (CS)
143
emotional response
conditional response (CR)
144
how is extinction used in behavioural therapy?
exposure therapy; wanting the predictive value of the CS
145
exposure therapy
experiencing negative emotion (CR) without consequence
146
chained association
CS2 - CS1 - US; conditioned stimulus 2 - conditioned stimulus 1 - unconditional stimulus
147
direct association
CS2 - US; conditioned stimulus 2 - unconditional stimulus
148
What is the UCS in the safe injection site example?
response of drug
149
What is the CS in the safe injection site example?
safe injection site
150
what is the CR in the safe injection site example?
experience of tolerance (cannot reach as high of a high)
151
closed-loop skills
execution of behaviour; immediate feedback on next steps for continuous motion
152
environment for activity is predictable; i.e. tracing a line, table air hockey
closed-loop skills
153
open-loop skills
necessary in dynamic environment; i.e. team sports
154
blocked schedules
one movement, repeatedly; feedback by seeing result and repeat
155
Faster learning and interference of multiple skills
blocked schedules
156
random schedule
not clear which move is required next; feedback is less clear in the moment
157
longer lasting learning, increased retention, transfer and retain skills beyond learning context
random schedule
158
operant conditioning
observable behaviours explain learning; how we learn from consequences/outcomes
159
law of effect
behaviours that lead to a preferred situation are likely to be repeated, aversive situation less likely to be repeated
160
positive reinforcement
existing behaviors could become strengthened after presentation of a rewarf
161
behaviorists view of reinforcement
behaviours are made beacuse of previous reward
162
requirements for operant conditioning
antecedent cues, response, consequence
163
operant conditioning responses
focus on the likelihood of the behaviour rather than the behaviours themselves
164
response tendency
likelihood of producing the same behaviour to antecedent cue in the future
165
without consequences
behaviours extinguish
166
positive consequences
when the environment provides something as a result of an action; something was added
167
negative consequences
when the environment removes something as a result of an action; something was taken away
168
Premack's principle
any behaviour that is likely to be performed is reinforcing for a behaviour that is less likely to be performed
169
example of Premack's principle
chores = tv, studying = hang out with friends; the first is less likely to be performed - what we are looking forward to will reinforce what we are not looking forward to
170
response deprivation hypothesis
behaviours are more reinforcing when we have the opportunity to do them after restriction
171
role of dopamine in reinforcement
strengthens association between cue and reward; cue --> over trials --> stronger motivation to perform behaviour
172
ratio schedule of reinforcement
provided at fixed or variable number of correct behaviours
173
interval schedules of reinforcement
reinforcement provided at fixed or variable periof of time
174
example of FR
buy 9 coffees get the 10th free
175
FR50 schedule
learner needs to produce the desired behaviour 50 times before receiving reinforcement
176
post reinforcement pause
produces pauses in performing after reinforcement
177
variable ratio
learner is reinforced on some average number of performances, number required is unknown
178
example of VR
slot machines
179
fixed interval
reinforcement after a specific amount of time has elapsed; as long as the behaviour is completed by that time
180
example of FI
getting a salary
181
FI schedule of reinforcement
not the most effective; scalloped performance; e.g. cramming
182
variable interval schedule of reinforcement
administered at an average time interval
183
VI schedule
less continuous behavioural responses than on a FI; more uniform performance; less cumulative frequency compared to VR
184
matching law
performing behaviours consistent with the observed pattern of reinforcement
185
differential reinforcement of low rates schedule
only given after the behaviour is performed after a specific time has passed
186
DRL
clock starts again if a behaviours performed before the specific time
187
differental reinforcement of high rates schedule
DRH; fixed number of responses have to occur within a time frame; encourages bursts of high responding
188
shaping
reinforcement of approximate behaviours until a new behaviour is learned; gradually reinforcement is only given as the behaivour starts looking as intended
189
example of shaping
training a dog to go outside; tapering down the rewards
190
response chain
reinforcement delivered for a sequence of behaviours; same action multiple times or multiple actionse
191
example of response chain
dog competition; dog is rewarded after competing the whole course
192
total task chain
cueing behaviours at random; random block
193
forward chain
learner taught behaviours (or facts) in the order they will later be retrieved
194
primacy effect
learn the things at the beginning much better
195
backward chain
start with the final behaviour and work backward
196
pros for backward chain
always ending on a positive note/success with familiar material
197
stimulus control
how a behaivour is influenced by different stimuli
198
instinctive drift
return of instinctive behaviours over reinforced training
199
avoidance conditioning
learning to make a behaviour to prevent or delay aversive stimulus
200
example of avoidance conditioning
leaving your house early to avoid traffic and being late
201
escape conditioning
making a behaviour to remove an aversive stimulus
202
example of escape conditioning
Thorndike's cats; make a behaviour (pressing the lever) to remove aversive stimulus (cage)
203
avoidance conditioning requires...
the cue detection of the pre-aversive stimulus
204
active avoidance
evading an aversive stimulus with a specific action; i.e. changing the route to work to avoid traffic
205
passive avoidance
evading an aversive stimulus with a lack of behaviour; i.e. not volunteering for a responsibility
206
learned helplessness
prior experience informs organisms about likelihood of operant behaviour's success
207
when behaviours do not produce change they may extinguish
learned helplessness; dogs with no electrical shock escape option will stop trying to escape shocks in later trials
208
learned helplessness is related to...
a lack of apparent control and can be unlearned/prevented
209
punishment
consequence that lowers the likelihood of a behaviours presentation
210
postive punishment
an aversive consequence is presented after a behaviour
211
example of positive punishment
GIVING a speeding ticket
212
negative punishment
valued object or activity is removed after a behaviour
213
example of negative punishment
getting grounded (loss of privileges); PAYING a speeding ticket
214
reversing Premack's principle
when a probable behaviour is followed by a less probable behaviour - the less probable is punishing
215
example of reversing Premack's principle
if watching TV means more chores, then this decreases the likelihood of watching TV
216
decelerator
behaviour control for the purpose of slowing down or stopping a behaviour
217
overcorrection
individuals encouraged to demonstrate correct behaviours
218
example of overcorrection
painting over your own graffiti
219
escape extinction
no escape is allowed; no avoidance permitted
220
example of escape extinction
an oral exam, student is not allowed to leave until they get it correct
221
response blocking
not permitting a behaviour through restraint
222
stimulus = presented, behaviour = strengthened
positive reinforcement
223
stimulus = presented, behaviour = weakened
positive punishment
224
stimulus = removed, behaviour = strengthened
negative reinforcement
225
stimulus = removed, behaviour = weakened
negative punishment
226
social learning theory
individuals can learn by observing/viewing outcomes; learning without behaviour change
227
latent learning
collecting observations and using them at a later time
228
modelling
act of an individual demonstration of some sort of behaviour
229
aspects of modelling
attention, retention, production , retrieval, motivation
230
bandura's model of reciprocal causation
person -> behaviour -> environment ->
231
bandura's model
reciprocal determinism, personal successes and failures change perception of own abilities
232
attribution theory
people attribute results of actions to own efforts/external factors
233
internal attribution
believing that work is attributed to our personal ability
234
external attribution
believing that work is attributed to random chance or situational factors
235
more likely to engage in learning if we make an
internal attribution
236
self-efficacy
confidence a person has in their ability to perform a task under a set of conditions
237
self-esteem
value we place on ourselves
238
self-concept
information and knowledge we have about ourselves
239
what drives self-efficacy
prior successes and failures; recency effect (getting good grades in high school and expecting the same in uni)
240
self-regulation theory
tasks need to be defined, set goals and make a plan, enact strategies and put the to use, adapt to experiences
241
self-monitoring
continual sense of how a process is going relative to our standards
242
self-control
process of executing various actions and adaptations as needed to support learning
243
piaget
constructivist, knowledge we accrue about the world is constructed by ourselves; learning through reflection and interaction with the environment
244
piaget - semantic information
conscious information about the world, through interactions with the environment
244
assimilation
child uses pre-existing knowledge to respond successfully to a situation
245
appropriately handing situation through assimilation
equilibrium
246
accomodation
child adopts existing knowledge to fit in an unexpected situation
247
confusion produces motivation to understand new situation
disequilibrium
248
sensorimotor stage
birth to 18/24 mnths; primary/secondary/tertiary circular reactions
249
preoperational stage
18/24 mnths - 7 yrs; formation of basic plans, ability to create schemas; centration and egocentrism
250
centration
focus on a single aspect of a problem rather than possible interacting factors; lack of conservation
251
egocentrism
trouble seeing the world from other's perspectives; physical and mental
252
concrete operations stage
6/7 - 11/12; more logical, rational thinking; able to focus on multiple elements of a problem (graduation beyond centration)
253
formal operations stage
11/12 - adult; children can logically reason about hypothetical/abstract concepts
254
open-ended/discovery learning
providing children opportunities of active exploration
255
inquiry learning
guided activities where students are asked to consider what they know, make predictions, and gather info to make conclusions
256
Lev Vygotsky
cognitive development from a social learning perspective, children have a reliance on others to construct their reality
257
zone of proximal development (Vygotsky)
range of cognitive functioning for some task or domain, more assistance required from others at high end
258
scaffolding
guidance provided to help accomplish a task, physical (e.g. someone teaching you a golf swing), mental (e.g. explaining the concept of fairness)
259
technoference
interruptions in interpersonal interactions due to technology
260
internalizing behaviours
sadness, worry, withdrawal, lethargy, negative perceptions of self
261
externalizing behaviours
impulsivity, disruptive, aggression, hyperactivity
262
phubbing
phone snubbing; decreased engagement in in-person conversations while using phone
263
technoference was associated with
increased externalizing behaviour -> increased parental stress -> increased technoference
264
technoference and secure attachment
increased sociality/compliance to requests
265
technoference and insecure attachment
hostility, social isolation, withdrawal
266
construct validity
association with other measures that an item should relate to; ex. in an inventory if 2 questions are related to one another, expect a consistent correlation
267
criterion validity
association with a variable that an item should relate to; ex. answer should exhibit real-life correlation , answer should relate to behaviour
268
child assent
affirmation from a child, but still require consent from adult
269
results: technoference and attachments
mothers' rating of technoference was not associated with own rating of attachment security, mothers' rating of technoference negatively correlated with child rating of attachment security
270
more mothers' technoference
lower secure attachment as rated by child
271
results: technoference and social-emotional functioning, social skills
higher rate of technoference -> lower mothers' rating of child's social skills
272
technoference not associated with
child's ratings of own social skills
273
results: technoference and social-emotional functioning, internalizing behaviours
higher reports of mothers' technoference -> higher mothers' rating of child's internalizing behaviours
274
results: technoference and social-emotional functioning, externalizing behaviours
higher reports of mothers' technoference -> higher mothers' rating of child's externalizing behaviours
275
results: moderating effect of attachment
more secure attachment, decreased rating of child's externalizing behaviour only when there was low technoference
276
when technoference is low
high maternal attachment is associated with reduced externalizing behaviours based on mothers' reports
277
amygdala
regulation of norepinephrine
278
implicit learning
the observer doesn't know they are learning
279
latent learning
the teacher doesn't know you are learning
280
two-factor theory of emotions
stimuli trigger physiological responses, e.g. fear produces a higher galvanic response than anger
281
misattribution of arousal
inaccurate perception of what brings on a state of arousal
282
emotion
specific state of feeling that is temporary and occurs as part of an event
283
mood
long-term emotional state, not necessarily tied to an event
284
affect
core dimension of emotions and moods, pleasure, tension, energy (arousal)
285
valence
negative to positive emotions; processed in prefrontal cortex
286
pleasure-displeasure dimension
valence
287
sleepy-activated dimension
arousal
288
arousal
amygdala and hippocampus activation
289
unpleasant activation
upset/tense
290
happiness activation
happy/alert
291
unpleasant deactivation
sad/fatigued
292
happiness deactivation
content/calm
293
yerkes-dodson law
mild amount of anxiety is normal and energizes the learner
294
motivated reasoning
hot cognition; interest in material increases involvement and focus on relevant strengths of issues
295
flow
pleasurable state of being when completely absorbed in an activity; learner feels in control
296
self-determination theory
ability to act on our own, enhances motivation to learn; external pressure can detract from ability to form personally motivating goals
297
intrinsic motivation
by personal interests, goals, desires, inherent satisfaction, curiosity
298
extrinsic motivation
by external reinforcements and punishments (operant conditioning)
299
over justification effect
external reinforcement for performance in an activity can decrease desire to do the activity when external reinforcement is removed
300
deficiency needs
problems that de-motivate people until they can be resolved
301
growth needs
involving personal growth
302
Maslow's hierarchy
physiological needs -> safety and security -> love and belonging -> esteem -> self actualization
303
self-actualization
desire to become everything that you are capable of becoming
304
Niita'pitapi
someone who is completely developed or who has arrived
305
positive deviants (Blackfoot)
disproportionately successful individuals
306
negative deviants (Blackfoot)
disproportionately unsuccessful/unlawful individuals
307
perceived task value
worth that someone assigns to a task; subjective judgement
308
why do goals workk well?
increase self-management of learning
309
mastery goal
desire to achieve success because interested in personal growth
310
performance goal
pursuing goal to achieve a certain status; social end
311
work-avoidance goals
aim to avoid failure, ex. someone who skits duties in a club
312
expectancy-value theory
motivation to take on a task results form decisions people make regarding an offered arrangement
313
three decisions to pursue a learning opportunity
expectancy, instrumentality, valence
314
expectancy
does the learner think they can produce the required performance
315
instrumentality
is the promised outcome really dependent on performance
316
valence
overall value assigned to task (attainment value, intrinsic value, utility value, cost)
317
attainment value
how important doing well on the task is to the individual
318
intrinsic value
how much enjoyment they will receive from doing it
319
utility value
how well the task aligns with future goals
320
expectancy-value theory model
effort ------------------------> outcome
^expectancy
^instrumentality
^valence
321
willful encoding
attention, organization of information, and rehearsing
322
serial position curve
words that are at the beginning or ending of a list have an advantage when being recalled (bookend effect)
323
primacy effect
improved performance for words at the beginning of a list
324
recency effect
improved performance for words at the ending of a list
325
selective attention
directing attention to important sensory information; all else is lost
326
without continuous rehearsal how long does info stay in short-term memory
~30 secs
327
Baddeley's Working memory model
suggests both sensory and long-term memories can be brought together in short-term memory for combination and transformation
328
phonological loop
one of the systems of working memory as proposed by Baddeley; storing and replaying language information
329
phonemes
specific sounds we make for words; interrupting the phonological loop
330
irrelevant speech effect
words disrupted recall more than noise and silence
331
phonological-similarity effect
mistakes were made in recall related to sound of letter not shape; phonetically similar items causing trouble with recall
332
example of phonological-similarity effect
CGBVT cause more difficulty than KHXWQ
333
articulatory suppression
decreased recall due to verbal speech during the task
334
subvocal rehearsal
explains why phonetically similar items are harder to recall; similar muscle movements (words don't stand out).
335
mental chronometry
time that it takes to go through with a cognitive process
336
neuroanatomical correlates of the visuospatial sketchpad; neural activity in the...
occipital lobe
337
mental imagery tends to rely on
left hemisphere
338
rotation of images tends to rely on
posterior right hemisphere
339
episodic buffer
bridges working memory with long-term memory
340
central executive
mediator between client subsystems (phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, episodic buffer)
341
accuracy of JOL
dependent on timing of judgement made; study, wait period without rehearsal - then make JOL (more accurate)
342
distributed practice effect
people tend to learn most optimally in frequent/short study sessions
343
encoding-variability explanation
distributing practice allows people to encode information differently each time
344
semantic-based processing
learners pay attention to meanings behind material; processing material for meaning is powerful
345
deep processing
benefit from semantic processing; more elaborate engagement
346
elaborative rehearsal
involves adding or using existing knowledge to enhance information maintained in short-term memory
347
maintenance rehearsal
rote memorization; simply repeating material
348
self-reference effect
considering how material applies to oneself
349
survival processing
think about functions of material to boost learning
350
generation effect
learning benefit from making up our own cue words for each item (ex. mnemonics)
351
cue-target word association task
predict higher recall of target word if participants pick cue words themselves
352
chunking
type of organization; grouping material based on similarity
353
hierarchy technique
arranging objects into series of classes (table, concept map)
354
von restorff effect/distinctiveness technique
focusing on how each item is different from others enhances learning
355
first-letter technique
creating acronyms
356
keyword method
connecting lists of objects to an already known sequence that acts as a cue (ex. grocery list 1. corn 2. flour 3. cereal)
357
memories
information we have learned that is temporarily outside of conscious awareness
358
consolidation theory
over time, memory traces (neural pathways that evoke a memory) thought to become more consolidated
359
inhibitory avoidance conditioning
rats shocked in certain contexts... they avoid contexts
360
self-regulated learning
process whereby students activate and sustain cognitions, behaviours, and affects which are systematically oriented toward the attainment of their goals
361
open coding
generating initial codes for data; line-by-line from transcript
362
axial coding
identifying core phenomenon and surrounding categories
363
selective coding
last step in grounded theory; connect categories together under core category
364
qualitative approach emphasized
understanding
365
histone
basic protein abundant in lysine and arginine amino acids found in nuclei
366
nucleosomes
scaffolded into chromatin
367
post-translational modification of histone proteins
acetylation, methylation, phosphorylation
368
where does post-translational modification of histone proteins occur?
at N terminus (-NH2 group); facilitation , suppression and RNA polymerase
369
histone acetyltransferases (HATs)
add acetyl groups to lysine residues on histone tails
370
histone deacetylases (HDACs)
remove acetyl groups; inhibit transcription
371
histone methytransferase (HMT)
adds methyl groups to lysine on histone tails
372
histone demethylases (HDMs)
remove methyl groups; increase/decrease in transcription after methylation modification depends which lysine and state of methylation (mono-, di-, tri-)
373
cytosine DNA methylation
epigenetic modification usually at CpG dinucleotides
374
CpG dinucleotides
when a cytosine is followed by a guanine in a DNA sequence; increase or decrease in transcription
375
DNA methyltransferase (5mC)
tet protein-mediated hydroxylation of 5mC-----> 5hmC
376
miRNA
small or long non-protein coding RNAs
377
miRNA ---> mRNA degradation or translational repression
transgenerational epigenetic inheritance
378
contextual fear conditioning
novel environment, aversive stimulus, remove and return
379
cued fear conditioning
controlled stimulus is added to the contextual conditioning paradigm; pair a stimulus i.e. sound with an electric shock
380
reinstatement
extinguished controlled stimulus (CS) is preceded by the uncontrolled stimulus (US)
381
renewal
return to the original fear learning context
382
spontaneous recovery
return with the passage of time
383
impairs fear learning
increased histone H3 acetylation in the hippocampus inhibits histone acetyltransferase (HAT)
384
enhances fear learning and expedites extinction
inhibiting deacetylase (HDAC)
385
histone 3
one of the types of histone proteins found along the genome, found to be extensively modified
386
H3K4me3
third histone at the 4th lysine (K) has tri-methylation modification
387
brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF)
protein that acts on neurons to encourage growth and survival
388
increased H3K4me3
supports fear memory formation
389
H3K4me3 and H3K9me2 can both be increased
after learning
390
H3K4me3
promotes memory and supports genes
391
H3K9me2
inhibits memory and suppresses genes
392
gene promoter
region where you start the expression of the gene
393
reduction of H3K9me2
at homer1a gene promoter
394
when learning is happening you see an increase in
homer1a production
395
inhibition of DNA methyltransferase (DNMT)
impairs contextual and auditory fear memory formation
396
dicer
enzyme critical for producing mature miRNAs by mediating RNA cleavage
397
dicer knockout
ex. morris water maze showed enhanced performance
398
increased miR-34a
notch signalling pathway (cell-cell communication)
399
decreased niR-192
actin (microfilaments of the cytoskeleton)
400
acute stress
increased H3K9me3 and increased histone methyltransferase activity
401
glucocorticoid receptor (GR)
signaling i.e. cortisol
402
FK506 binding protein 5 (fkbp5)
gene that regulates GR receptor function and translocation into the cell interior
403
limits hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA) activation
FK506 binding protein 5
404
stress cortisol binding
fkbp5 is replaced by fkbp4
405
GR translocation to the nucleus
binds the glucocorticoid response elements (GRE)
406
fkpb5 transcription and translation
is increased via GRE acitivty
407
fkbp5 is critical for
mediating coping responses to stress
408
fkbp5 mRNA elevated in
chronic stress in hippocampus, hypothalamus and blood (mice)
409
single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP)
1 nucleotide in a DNA sequence is altered
410
FKBP5 SNP + childhood trauma
leads to PTSD development
411
childhood trauma ---> geno-type dependent chromatin conformation change
---> reduction in FKBP5 methylation at GREs ---> increased FKBP5 transcription
412
social transmission option 1
direct interaction between ancestor and descendent generation
413
social transmission option 2
indirect interaction via maternal rearing environments influencing descendant biology
414
social transmission can exhibit
reversibility of effects
415
cross fostering
a pup from a well-groomed mother interacts with a badly-groomed mother, over time the pup's grooming habits will change
416
dissipation
effects dissipate over time through generations if they were not embedded in the genetic code
417
biological inheritance
gametes are epigenetically marked by a salient environmental event (e.g. stress)
418
pre-conceptual perturbations (i.e. stress) to the F0 generation should affect
all germ cells of F0 parents that will generate F1 offspring and seen in F2 offspring
419
in-utero and post-natal perturbation given to F0 mother
should affect the F1 generation and germline that will generate F2 offspring therefore seen in F3 offspring
420
maltreatment during postnatal care of F0 rats
effects in F1 generation, altered epigenetic signature of BDNF in the prefrontal cortex
421
social defeat
severe stressor in rodents, resident-intruder model
422
male subjected to chronic stress for 6 weeks prior to mating
reduced responsiveness of stress pathway in F1, miRNA profile altered in F0 sperm
423
diet of pregnant mouse supplemented with cherry or mint odour
offspring exhibit preference; increased volume of olfactory bulbs of glomeruli
424
process the cherry odour
M71-expressing olfactory neurons (OSNs)
425
process the mint odour
M72 OSNs and glomeruli
426
one cell-one receptor rule
each OSN only expresses a single odorant receptor gene
427
F0 rats exposed/self-administered cocaine for 60 days
F1 male offspring delayed acquisition to self-administer
428
BDNF was increased in medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) of F1 generation
F0 rats cocaine
429
olfactory fear conditioning
fear toward odour paired with aversive stimulus
430
acetophenone activates M71-expressing OSNs
more M71 neurons found in nose of trained animals; mores OSN axons converge into larger glomerulus in olfactory bulb
431
mating F0 olfactory fear conditioned animals
F1 males: enhanced behavioural sensitivity to acetophenone; cross-fostering and IVF: persistence
432
1F promoter of GR gene methylation changes in F1 offspring
of mothers (F0) exposed to intimate partner violence
433
intrusive recollection
intense or prolonged distress after exposure to traumatic reminders
434
classical fear conditioning
pairing of an innate response with an unconditional stimulus
435
example of classical fear conditioning
startle reflex, increased respiration and pairing with a stimulus = firework
436
avoidance symptoms
car accident on a certain stress, person doesn't drive down that street
437
primary brain regions regulating fear and threat responses
amygdala, hippocampus, medial prefrontal cortex (dorsal dmPFC and ventral vmPFC subdivisions), orbitofrontal cortex OFC, anterior cingulate cortex ACC
438
sensory information is integrated with unconditioned stimulus information
in the lateral nucleus (LA)
439
signal travels to central amygdala
then to the hypothalamus and other brainstem structures (reticular nucleus)
440
mPFC and hippocampus regulate amygdala output to subcortical brain regions hypothalamus
heart rate, blood pressure, brainstem regions like the reticular formation
441
vmPFC in particular can
inhibit amygdala activity to reduce subjective distress
442
habituation treatment for PTSD
weakening of intensity of response to a stimulus over time
443
extinction treatment for PTSD
conditioned stimulus is no longer associated with the aversive unconditioned sitmulus
444
short term memory to long term memory
later retrieval: working memory
445
reconsolidating (relearning)
reactivated memories are stabilized again, active memories can be modified
446
event-related potentials (ERPs)
pattern of neural activity that is time-locked to a specific event
447
White American participants viewed pictures of White and Black faces
neural activity at 120 ms
448
stronger early neural response to
Black over White faces
449
N100
negative direction at around the 100ms
450
occipitotemporal and occipitoparietal regions
visual stimulus is being processed here; early orienting and attention to stimulus
451
goal-directed attention & perceptual matching
generally larger in White participants viewing Black faces
452
P200
positive direction at around 200ms
453
P200 and racial bias (first-person shooter game)
explicit measures of cultural stereotypes predicted ERP data
454
participants shot armed
Black targets more quickly
455
participants decided NOT to shoot unarmed
White target more quickly
456
larger P200 to
armed targets, Black targets
457
white american participants have larger N200 responses to
white than black faces
458
time course of social categorization N200
originates in dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC)
459
oddball task
associated with P300 (450-600ms)
460
release of noradrenaline
usually follows delivery of categorization decision
461
multivoxel pattern analysis (MVPA)
the volume of the brain region is made up of little cubes
462
activity in the anterior temporal lobe (ATL) and orbital frontal cortex
+ stimulus perception ~ fusiform cortex informs perception of social category membership
463
dACC and anterior insula activity
preference for in-group members
464
vmPFC
thinking about self and others' traits; categorizing in-group members
465
latent structure learning
non-conflict-based group perception; picking up on ambiguous stimuli
466
stereotyping involves encoding, storage and retrieval
of group-based concepts in the working memory
467
social knowledge
semantic knowledge, about people and groups linked to anterior temporal lobe (ATL)
468
feedback-based reward reinforcement
you meet someone and say hi, they response with screw you, you learn that you dont want a relationship with them
469
instrumental learning
direct interaction in social exchanges; associated with activity in the striatum
470
representation of reward connection with PFC and motor cortex
goal-directed behaviour
471
Dr. Mamie Phipps Clark
experimental psychologist, studied racial preferences in Black children in integrated schools compared to segregated schools
472
multimodal classical conditioning
as a result of verbal, visual, physical experiences
473
more than 65% of Black children from segregated schools
identified the White doll as the one they liked best
474
Dr. Mamie Phipps Clark's findings
were used in the Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court case that ended school segregation
475
