Final Exam Flashcards
(127 cards)
1
Q
Temperament
A
forms the basis of personality development through the
dispositions by which young infants first exert a unique influence on others
around them, and become recognized by others as distinct individuals.
2
Q
Emotion
A
includes the capacity for emotional expression, understanding, and
regulation, all of which contribute to the development of personality.
3
Q
Self
A
is important for how it a person processes information using the core of his or
her self-perceived personhood.
4
Q
Temperament, self, and emotion help to define…
A
individuality from the beginning of life.
5
Q
temperament, emotion, and self each reflects…
A
an interaction
between emergent intrinsic capacities and the influences of the social world.
6
Q
In this ongoing dynamic between nature and nurture, ___________ takes shape,
A
personality
7
Q
personality
A
each developing child becomes a unique person in a complex social world.
8
Q
the defining features that distinguish temperament from moods or emotions
A
concerns the early emerging, stable individuality in a person’s
behavior, this distinguishes it from more transient emotional states and influences on the child
9
Q
three defining features of temperamental individuality
A
- temperamental characteristics are constitutional in nature (biologically
based)
-emperament is expected to be relatively stable
over time. That is, individual differences in temperamental characteristics are
stable: A child who is dispositionally more cheerful than peers in infancy should,
as a preschooler, still be more cheerful than age-mates
-temperament interacts with the environment as an influence on
development.
10
Q
the three common dimensions of temperamen
A
-emotion
-self-regulation
-activity level
11
Q
emotion
A
Negative Affectivity: (Rothbart & Bates)
-Frustration
-Fear
-Discomfort
- Sadness
-Soothability
Quality of Mood (Thomas & Chess)
Emotionality (Buss & Plamin)
12
Q
Self-regulation
A
Effortful Control: (Rothbart & Bates)
-Attentional control
-Inhibitory control
-Perceptual sensitivity
-Low-intensity pleasure
Rhythmicity: (Thomas & Chase)
-Approach/withdrawal
-Adaptability
-Distractability
-Persistence-Attention
-Sensory threshold of responsiveness
13
Q
Activity level
A
Extraversion/surgency: (Rothbart & Bates)
-Activity
-Shyness (low)
-High-intensity pleasure
-Smiling & laughter
-Impulsivity
-Positive Anticipation
-Affiliation
Intensity of reaction: (Thomas & Chase)
Sociability (Buss & Plomin)
14
Q
measures of temperament obtained in the initial months of life are…
A
only inconsistently associated with later assessments of the same aspects of
temperament
15
Q
greater short-term stability in certain temperament dimensions begins to
be observed…
A
after the first year, but sometimes earlier.
16
Q
there is increasing evidence for longer-term associations between
temperament and later behavior after…
A
the second year of life.
17
Q
7 basic emotions
A
Happiness
sadness
fear
interest
anger
disgust
surprise
18
Q
4 emotions that are
thought to be more self-conscious
A
Pride
shame
guilt
embarrassment
19
Q
Emotional development includes multiple features of psychological growth. This includes:
A
-the psychobiological foundations of emotion
-developing capacities for
perceiving emotion in others
-emotional understanding
-the development of empathy
-the growth of self-understanding
-mastery of emotional display rules,
-developing capacities for emotion regulation.
20
Q
The story of emotional
development is how these different features of emotion…
A
mature and become
integrated in shaping emotional experience and its expression.
21
Q
emotional perception
A
the ability to accurately perceive emotion in others.
22
Q
Even____________ can discriminate and categorize facial expressions of smiling
A
5-month-olds
23
Q
display rules
A
understanding and applying social rules
for the display of emotion in social settings
24
Q
an example of when it may be appropriate or
inappropriate to show the same emotion.
A
person is supposed
to show delight when opening a gift, even if it is undesirable (especially in the
presence of the gift-giver), and one is not supposed to laugh at a defeated
opponent or at someone who takes an unexpected spill on a slippery sidewalk
25
The “self”
a person’s sense of subjective self-awareness, and the perception of
oneself as an actor, a perceiver, one who is emotional, a thinker, and one who
experiences things, all of which he or she is consciously aware
26
Self-representation
who you think you are, which includes physical self-
recognition, assigning labels to oneself (e.g., gender, racial or ethnic identity, age,
etc.), attributing character’s qualities to oneself (e.g., shy, friendly, or bright), and
understanding how self-relevant processes function (e.g., thinking, feeling, and
motivation).
27
Autobiographical personal narratives
recollections of specific events in the
past that are integrated because of their personal meaning and relation to oneself
28
Self-evaluations
consist of self-evaluations that color self-representations and
become integrated into the self-concept and self-image. Self-evaluations often
come from the internalization of others’ evaluations, but they also come from the
quality of personal self-regard and developing capacities for self-understanding.
29
The social self
primarily thought of in a social context and as being influenced
by social interactions and relationships (especially with parents). It is not until
around the age of 2 that young children begin to be interested and concerned with
how their behavior is perceived by others (e.g., caregivers).
30
According to attachment theory, attachments develop out of...
interactions within
dynamic relationships, with individuals’ experiences of different relationships
making up their understanding of the social world (e.g., parent-child
relationships).
31
three key issues that developmental psychology has focused on over the past 40
years regarding attachment
-there has been increasing agreement that the family is a system in which
children influence their parents as much as parents “socialize” their children, and
that each member of the system must be understood with reference to the others.
- parenting and child development do not take place in a social vacuum.
Parents and children interact within a complex system of influences that extend
far beyond the household.
- researchers have made extensive efforts recently to identify the role of
behavior genetics in understanding parent–child relationships and their effects.
32
Bowlby's attachment theory emphasized...
the way that the infant's innate capacity
to emit signals to which adults are biologically predisposed to respond fostered
the development of attachments
33
What four phases in the development of parent-infant attachments did Bowlby (1969) describe?
a. The newborn phase of indiscriminate social responsiveness (the first one or two
months).
b. The phase of discriminating sociability (the second to the seventh months).
c. Maintenance of proximity to a particular person by means of moving as well as
vocal signals (from the seventh month through the second year).
d. Goal-corrected partnership (the third year on).
34
Ainsworth and her colleagues (1978) developed “The Strange
Situation” for assessing the security of infant-adult attachment. This is...
The procedure has seven parts, designed to expose infants to increasing levels of
stress in order to observe how they react around their parents when distressed by
being in an unfamiliar environment, the entrance of an unfamiliar adult, and brief
separations from the parent (see Table 6.1)
35
responsive parenting
nurturing, attentive,
nonrestrictive parental care
36
Generally, sensitive or responsive parenting and synchronous infant–mother interactions are associated with....
secure infant behavior in the Strange Situation
37
mothers of infants who behave in either insecure–avoidant or insecure–
resistant ways show...
less socially desirable patterns of behavior, whereby mothers
may overstimulate or under-stimulate their children, fail to make their behaviors
contingent on infant behavior, appear cold or rejecting, and sometimes act
incompetently.
38
Fathers are also more likely to engage in... while mothers are more likely to initiate games....
physically stimulating or unpredictable
types of play than are mothers; like patty-cake and peek-a-boo, or to engage in bouts of play with toys
39
Fathers often provide more....
unpredictable, less rhythmic, and less containing
stimulation (both physical and vocal) than did mothers. For example, triadic
interactions between parents and their 11 to 15-month-olds showed that mothers
seemed to maintain interaction, while fathers show more positive affect.
40
Children with secure attachments to their mothers are more...
cooperatively playful
than insecure infants when interacting with friendly strangers or peers.
41
Children who were securely attached to their mothers as infants also persisted...
longer and more enthusiastically in cognitively challenging situations than did
children who had insecure attachments
42
secure infants seem to be more resilient and robust when...
stressed or
challenged and appear more socially competent and independent when they enter
preschool.
43
Insecure attachment in infancy, particularly of the disorganized/disoriented type
(D), is associated with...
elevated rates of antisocial and externalized behavior
problems in childhood.
44
Gender has an influence on socialization in general, and parent–child interactions
in particular, although...
researchers have shown few differences in the ways in
which boys and girls are treated by their parents during the first years of life.
45
Researchers have shown only one consistent minor difference between mothers
and fathers
there is a tendency for fathers to encourage the use of sex-typed
toys.
46
In what ways do parenting styles change when children are in middle childhood?
school-aged children
need less intensive and more subtle monitoring and exert more self-control than
younger children.
Most parents and professionals, believe that parents must continue to assume
directive roles, allowing children to express emotions fully, making important
norms salient, and setting appropriate limits when necessary.
47
4 patterns of parenting styles, according to
Baumrind’s (1960s) model
. Authoritarian parents value obedience and recommend forceful imposition of the
parents’ will.
b. Permissive parents believe that parents should be nonintrusive but available as
resources.
c. Nonconformist parents, although opposed to authority, are “less passive and exert
more control than permissive parents”.
d. Authoritative parents encourage independence and attempt to shape their
preschoolers’ behavior using rational explanation. Authoritative parenting is
generally lined with better outcomes for children.
48
Tension is inevitable in adolescence
parents try to maintain attachments and dependency while
teenagers strive for independence.
49
Adjustment and maladjustment in childhood stem from a wide variety of sources,
including:
siblings, teachers or out-of-home caregivers, peers, etc
50
Early on, social awareness of very young infants was_______,but socially
oriented interest during the first half-year of life includes_______.
underestimated; smiling, vocalizing, and
reaching toward peers.
51
By 6 to 9 months, infants...
direct looks, vocalizations, and
smiles at one another and often return similar behaviors to others
52
Parten (1932) developed a theory of...
social participation that described six sequential
social participation categories for children in early childhood
53
Parten (1932) described six sequential social participation categories:
i. unoccupied behavior
ii. solitary play
iii. onlooker behavior (the child observes others but does not participate in the
activity)
iv. parallel play (plays beside but not with other children)
v. associative play (plays and shares with others)
vi. cooperative play (social play in which there is a defined division of labor).
54
n middle childhood, children's interactions with peers become...
increasingly
complex and multifaceted, which may be attributed to continued advances in the
abilities to understand and appreciate others’ thoughts, intentions, and emotions
55
two defining features of friendships in childhood
-reciprocity (mutual behaviors and
feelings)
-a feeling of perceived equality between individuals
56
eight basic functions of friendships in childhood.
. provide support, self-esteem enhancement, and positive self-evaluation
ii. provide emotional security
iii. provide affection and opportunities for intimate disclosure
iv. provide intimacy and affection
v. offer consensual validation of interests, hopes, and fears
vi. provide instrumental and informational assistance
vii. promote the growth of interpersonal sensitivity
viii. offer prototypes for later romantic, marital, and parental relationships.
All are thought to provide a secure base from which children may explore the
effects of their behaviors on themselves and others.
57
Research involving conflict between friends and non-friends is somewhat
contradictory, because...
friends engage in more friendly interactions, but also more
quarreling, active hostility (assaults and threats), and reactive hostility (refusals
and resistance)
58
friends make more use of..., relative to standing firm, in their resolution of
conflicts,...
negotiation and disengagement; with friends are more likely to reach equitable resolutions and
agreements. So, the although the amount of conflict is greater between friends
than non-friends, friends resolve conflicts in ways that help ensure that their
relationships persist beyond the conflict
59
girls report______
intimate exchange than boys
more
60
Co-rumination
negatively dwelling on emotionally charged and intimate
everyday occurrences and feelings
61
Girls report_______co-rumination, or intimate self-disclosure done in a
“ruminative” fashion within their friendships than do boys.
more
62
Co-rumination is associated with...
internalizing problems (e.g., anxiety,
depression).
63
Children who act aggressively______have difficulty forming friendships
do not
64
Although aggressive children tend to be more________than other children, the
majority of aggressive children...
disliked; have a mutual best friendship and are as likely as
well-adjusted children to have mutual friends
65
Aggression seems to be related to __________ of friendships, with relationships that are more_____________________.
instability; aggression seems to be related to instability of friendships, with relationships that are more confrontational and antisocial in quality.
66
High levels of relational
aggression (e.g., threatening friendship withdrawal) are associated with....
exclusivity, jealousy, other negative aspects of relationships
67
High levels of overt
aggression are more often related to....
aggression outside of the friendship, with
lower levels of intimacy within the relationship.
68
Peer acceptance
the experience of being liked and accepted by the peer group.
69
Peer rejection
the experience of being disliked by peers.
70
Perceived popularity
reflected in who children think are “popular” but who may
not always be well-liked by the larger peer group
71
The method of assessing sociometric popularity and rejection is to...
have children
nominate three to five peers whom they “like” and “dislike.” From these
nominations children are categorized into status groups based on the number of
positive and negative nominations they received from peers. Based on these
nominations, children are classified into five sociometric categories. Children
who receive many “like” and few “dislike” nominations are labeled
(sociometrically) popular, those who receive many “like” and many “dislike”
nominations are controversial. The other categories are rejected (liked by few and
disliked by many), neglected (liked by few and disliked by few), and average
(near the midrange of liked and disliked nominations
72
According to the social information-processing model:
i. Children select a social goal.
ii. They examine the task environment, which involves reading and
interpreting all the relevant social cues.
iii. They access and select strategies (e.g., generating plans of action).
iv. They implement the chosen strategy.
v. They evaluate the outcome of the strategy (determining success)
73
Crick and Dodge (1994) proposed a similar social-cognitive model to the social information processing model to account for aggression in children. The 6 stages of this model are:
(1) encoding of social cues; (2) interpreting of encoded
cues; (3) clarifying goals; (4) accessing and generating potential
responses; (5) evaluating and selecting responses; and (6) enacting chosen
responses.
74
Rejection sensitivity
the tendency to defensively expect, readily perceive, and
overreact to rejection.
75
Rejection sensitivity is typically assessed by...
presenting children with hypothetical
scenarios and asking them how nervous or angry they would feel and how much
they expect to be rejected in each situation
76
Expectations of rejection that are accompanied by anger may lead to...
aggressive
behavior with peers and that (nervous or) anxious expectations of rejection may
lead to internalizing or anxious behaviors with peers. These expectations are also
associated with more teacher-related aggression and less social competence.
77
Perceived social competence
a measure of children's awareness of
their own peer acceptance or social skillfulness
78
In general, children with higher perceived social competence tend to be more...
popular with peers, with a trend for this relation to increase with age.
79
Longitudinal research has indicated that peer rejection in childhood is associated
with a wide range of externalizing problems in adolescence, including....
delinquency, conduct disorder, attentional difficulties, and substance abuse.
80
Research has also indicated that anxious withdrawal is contemporaneously and
predictively associated with internalizing problems across the lifespan, including....
low self-esteem, anxiety problems, loneliness, and depressive symptoms
81
Emotion regulation
the ability to control emotions, which is linked with social
competence. Unsociable children who are good emotion regulators, appear to
suffer no ill effects of their lack of social behavior. Unsociable children who were
poor emotion regulators, however, demonstrate anxious and wary behaviors and
are more behaviorally restrained in a peer play setting.
82
Difficulties in emotion regulation can contribute toward....
the development of both
internalizing problems (e.g., anxiety, depression) and externalizing problems
(e.g., arguments, aggressive behaviors).
83
Some distal forces that shape children are....
contributions of neighborhoods, communities, religious
institutions and schools, as well as larger, political, societal, cultural, and
historical forces, on young people's academic, social–emotional and behavioral
development
84
Two key aspects of academic work that can influence students’ emotional,
cognitive and moral development are:
(a) the content of the curriculum in terms of
its intellectual substance and its consideration of global social–historical realities
and (b) the design of instruction in terms of scaffolding knowledge development,
and also in terms of its capacity to cultivate interest, meaningfulness, challenge,
and deep cognitive, emotional, and behavioral engagement with the material.
85
the seven basic assumptions that guide the descriptive model of
the context of schooling:
1. The context of schooling involves a nested social system, that shapes acts of
leadership, teaching and learning.
2. Aspects of the system involve people, resources, and educational practices, that
exert important influences on children's academic, socioemotional, and behavioral
development.
3. The kinds of structures and processes associated with the school system
“develop” from both the first-person perspective of, and a third-person
perspective on, the growing child as he or she moves through the various
institutions that compose the system (elementary, middle, and high schools).
4. Young people from different racial, ethnic, linguistic, and socioeconomic
backgrounds face different kinds of barriers and opportunities with respect to
education.
5. All learn and are affected by acts of teaching and learning across multiple
dimensions—not just the cognitive/intellectual one.
6. There is also an effect by young people's subjective perceptions of their
developmental contexts as well as by their own behavior.
7. Education is also about the development of qualities of mindful awareness and
concern for others that allow for freedom of thought, creativity, harmonious
relations among diverse peoples.
86
The first level of the context of schooling is ....
Academic Work
87
The second level of the context of schooling is
Groups and Activity Structures
88
Classroom instruction is delivered through...
different grouping and activity
structures, including whole-group instruction, individualized instruction, and
small-group instruction
89
The third level of the context of schooling is
teachers, Instruction, and Classroom
Climate.
90
Teachers’ decisions, practices, and interpersonal behavior in the classroom are important in....
motivating and supporting learning.
91
Stereotypes
general beliefs about all individuals in a group; this is the
cognitive component of the three terms (thoughts).
i. Example: Believing that boys are better at math may lead to girls
performing more poorly on math tests in comparison to boys.
92
Prejudice
a negative feeling toward individuals in a group; this is the emotional
component of the three terms (feelings).
i. Example: Disliking girls who earn high grades in math courses
93
Discrimination
involves acting against individuals in a group; this is the
behavioral component of the three terms (behaviors).
i. Example: Children not choosing a girl who is good in math to be on their
sports team.
94
Achievement goal theory is
a social–cognitive approach to the study of motivated
behavior in achievement settings. This theory states that goals organize the quality
of individual's attention, emotion, cognition, and behavior during teaching or
learning
95
teachers' "relative ability-goal
orientation"
where they believe that the goal of children’s learning is
demonstrating their abilities, especially relative to others
96
teacher's mastery
orientation
mastery, self-improvement, and progressive skill
development are the valued ends of learning in the classroom, with students
learning to master new content, learning from mistakes, and continuing to try
despite setbacks.
97
the motivational person-environment fit
Researchers suggest that students are maximally motivated to learn in situations
that fit well with their interests, current skill levels, and psychological needs
Example: Females appear to respond more positively to math and science
instruction if taught in a cooperative or individualized manner rather than
a competitive manner, if taught from an applied or person-centered
perspective rather than a theoretical or abstract perspective, if taught using
a hands-on approach rather than a book-learning approach, and if the
teacher avoids sexism in its many subtle forms. In this case, girls, as well
as boys, are more likely to continue taking courses in these fields and to
consider working in these fields when they become adults.
98
Self-Determination Theory suggests that humans have three basic needs:
i. To feel competent
ii. To feel socially attached, and
iii. To have autonomous control in one's life.
Researchers suggest that individuals develop best in contexts that provide
opportunities for each of these needs to be met under the guidance of more-expert,
qualified, and caring individuals.
99
According to the Expectancy Value Theory of achievement choices...
students’
expectations for success and the subjective value they attach to engaging in the
learning activities are required for success.
Example: When choosing a career, it is not sufficient to have only
expectations for success (e.g., someone thinking that he or she could be
successful in a lower-paying job, but not valuing that job) or to have only
subjective value for an occupation (e.g., valuing a higher-paying job but
not believing you could be successful in that occupation). According to
the Expectancy Value theory of achievement choices, success comes from
both expectations that you will succeed in a career and valuing that
occupation.
100
The fourth level of context in schooling is...
Academic Tracks and Curricular
Differentiation
101
Academic Tracks and Curricular
Differentiation refers to...
the ways in which schools provide different educational
experiences for students of different ability levels
102
The fifth level of the context of schooling is...
schools as Organizations with
Cultures
103
The fifth level of context of schooling includes...
that management/work culture for teachers and a learning
culture for students, with research showing that effective schools have strong
leadership focused on academic outcomes, closely monitoring students’ work, and
having high expectations for all students.
104
the sixth level of the context of schooling is....
having School-Home-Community
Connections.
105
at the sixth level of context of schooling,...
parental involvement in their child's schooling (e.g., monitoring
homework, assisting with homework, participating in school organizations) has
consistently emerged as an important factor in promoting both academic
achievement and socioemotional well-being.
106
three benefits of adolescents’ involvement in sports:
links an adolescent to a set of similar peers, provides shared
experiences and goals, and can reinforce friendships.
107
Applied research
focuses on solving social problems.
i. Example: Research focused on best ways to teach children to read.
108
Basic research
focuses on understanding scientific theories or occurrences.
i. Example: Research focused on understanding thought processes
associated with language development.
109
early identification of child maltreatment is difficult because....
it often occurs in
homes and in secrecy, and sometimes with little outward evidence (e.g., as in the
case of sexual abuse)
110
Children’s accounts of experiences are often_______. Also, children are susceptible to ___________ by adults, which
makes it difficult to know if children’s accounts of experiences are accurate
vague, inconsistent, and/or
incomplete; suggestion
111
An investigative interview is typically....
a one-on-one conversation between and
adult and child in an effort to determine the facts of a case, which may lead to
criminal proceedings and/or family interventions.
112
Open-ended focused but not suggestive questions are preferred because....
they
access free recall memory (e.g., “Tell me everything that happened.”)
113
Closed-ended questions often yield...
less information retrieval and less reliable
information (e.g., “Where did he hurt you?”)
114
About________the children in the US spend at least part of their childhood living with
a single parent.
half
115
Approximately_____ of children in post-separation and divorced families give
evidence of adjustment problems, compared to_________in married families.
25%; 12-15%
116
Researchers have clearly demonstrated that, on average, children benefit
from being raised in...
two-[biological or adoptive]parent families rather than
separated, divorced, or never-married single-parent households, although the
majority of children with divorced parents eventually enjoy average or better-
than-average social and emotional adjustment as young adults.
117
Meta-analyses
statistical procedures that combine the results of several
studies.
118
A meta-analysis of multiple measures of emotional and behavioral
adjustment and academic achievement by mothers, fathers, teachers, and
clinicians indicated that children in joint physical custody were.....
better adjusted
than children in sole custody arrangements
119
What are some “parenting plans” that may help children remain attached to their children,
following separation and/or divorce
In order to ensure that both parents become or remain attached to their children,
post-divorce parenting plans need to encourage participation by both parents in as
broad as possible an array of social contexts on a regular basis. Brief dinners and
occasional weekend visits do not provide a broad enough or extensive enough
basis for such relationships to be fostered, whereas weekday and weekend
daytime and nighttime activities are important for children of all ages
120
four empirically based practices that mental health
professionals can provide to help separating parents reduce the risks that children face
a. First, professionals can prepare parents to talk to their children about those
aspects of the separation and divorce that directly affect them.
b. Second, because transitions between households provide opportunities for
discussion and argument, it is important to ensure that these exchanges take place
in neutral settings and at times that limit contact between the parents when there is
a history of conflict
c. Third, professionals can become familiar with and promote awareness of various
models for parenting plans that have been informed by applied research. Instead
of one standard visiting pattern, a menu of different time-sharing options for
children of different ages would encourage parents, professionals, and courts to
consider children's ages and developmental needs and achievements; the quality
of parent–child relationships; parents’ interest and capacity to be involved in their
children's lives; and children's voices and input when appropriate.
d. Fourth, custody evaluators should become familiar and stay current with the
empirical literature regarding attachment, child development, parent–child
relationships, parental separation, and children's adjustment. If they are to make
recommendations to the court, these recommendations should be grounded in and
supported by the current research literature, rather than theory or subjective bias
121
Culpability
defined as responsibility or blame for a crime.
122
Competence to stand trial
refers whether a person is able to understand the
consequences of the trial, as well as the ability to assist in his/her defense.
123
Both basic and applied psychological research play a role in informing the ways
that young victims and witnesses are interviewed, but....
this research has not
routinely been taken into account when young suspects are involved.
124
Applied research in the field of developmental criminology has documented an
age–crime curve....
which shows that criminal behavior increases in adolescence
and decreases in adulthood.
125
Research has shown that most juvenile offenders...
cease offending after
adolescence, whether or not they come into contact with the legal system; a very
small proportion of adolescent offenders continue committing crimes later in life.
125
Two primary groups of offenders are...
"adolescent limited” and “life-course
persistent.
126
In “the Central Park jogger case,”...
five teenage boys gave false confessions to the
brutal assault and rape of a woman in New York City, because they thought they
would then be allowed to go home. Although some nearly immediately withdrew
their confessions, twelve years into their prison sentence, DNA and confession
evidence confirmed the identity of the actual rapist—Matias Reyes. The boys,
who were then young men, were exonerated and released from prison.
