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CSD 401 > Final Exam > Flashcards

Final Exam Flashcards

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1
Q

Neurology

A

The study of the nervous system; specifically the anatomy, physiology, and pathology of the nervous system.

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2
Q

Localization of Function: Phrenology:

A

A study based on the belief that bumps on the skull correspond to certain brain areas (and only those areas) that perform certain mental functions.
Franz Gall
Pick out area of brain and say that this is what it does

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3
Q

Holism

A

The belief that the whole brain is involved in a mental function, not just a discrete part of the brain.
Freud
Florence
The whole brain is lighting up and working

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4
Q

Connectionism

A

The belief that there are centers in the brain responsible for certain functions, but that these areas are connected together and work cooperatively.
Broca
Wernicke
Geschwind
EX. arcuate fasciculus

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5
Q

CT

A

x-ray that reflect off different densities to create a picture
Pro: quick/cheap
Con: risk of cancer, shows anatomy only, poorly show soft tissue: low clarity, does not pick up new damage

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6
Q

MRI

A

magnet current that flips protons in your water molecules
Pro: great at soft tissue, no cancer risk, super sharp images compared to CT
Con: loud, expensive, long, claustrophobia, no metals

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7
Q

Angiography

A

Blood vessels can be seen with injected iodine and x-ray
Pro: shows blood vessels
Con: requires injection

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8
Q

PET

A

shows brain activity based on glucose metabolism of the brain using radioactive isotope injection (spacial: shows location of brain activity
Pro: shows location of brain activity, great to detect cancer, showing where glucose is
Con: cancer, injection of radioactive isotope

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9
Q

EEG

A

measures the neural electrical activity through electrodes on the scalp (temporal: shows timing of response)
Pro: shows neuronal electrical activity
Con: does not show structural details

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10
Q

FMRI

A

shows anatomy and physiology by measuring blood oxygenation
Pro: combo of MRI and PET, does not require and injection
Con: not mainstream and used mostly in research facilities

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11
Q

Dorsal induction: (3-7 weeks):

A

Period when the neural tube is formed (neurulation)
Ends of the neural tube close by 6th week
Brain and spinal cord will develop out of the neural tube

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12
Q

When the neural tube has difficulty closing…

A

Encephalocele: when part of the brain protrudes from the skull (protrudes from occipital lobe, excessive fluid in the brain, intellectual disability- superior tube damage)
Anencephaly: brain development ceases at the brainstem, child without cerebral hemispheres (superior tube damage)
Spina bifida: cyst on back that may or may not involve the spinal cord (inferior tube damage)

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13
Q

Ventral induction: (8-12 weeks)

A

Neurodevelopment period when face and brain develop out of superior end of the neural tube (brain divides into 2 hemispheres)
Prosencephalon: forebrain → telencephalon (cerebral cortex), diencephalon (thalamus)
Mesencephalon: midbrain
Rhombencephalon: hindbrain → metencephalon (pons, cerebellum), myelencephalon (medulla)

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14
Q

Ventral induction conditions…

A

Holoprosencephaly: failure of brain cleavage
Alobar: most severe, no cleavage at all resulting in no distinct cerebral hemispheres, no corpus callosum
Semilobar: some cleavage and development of right and left hemispheres, but incomplete, no corpus callosum
Lobar: least severe, brain looks normal, but abnormal connections between hemisphere

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15
Q

Neural proliferation: (12-16 weeks):

A

the birth of new neurons (neurogenesis)
New neurons become gray and white matter of the cerebral cortex
Born out of the spinal and brainstem

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16
Q

Interruptions in neural proliferation..

A

Microcephaly: children have abnormally small head/brain material

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17
Q

Neural migration: (12-20 weeks):

A

new neurons move to their correct position in the cerebral hemispheres
Reelin chemical signals the neurons where to go/stop
At 20 weeks GA, the process stops and 6 layers of cerebral cortex are established (gyri and sulci & lobes of brain develop)

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18
Q

Neural migration conditions…

A

Schizencephaly: clefts in the cerebral hemispheres because the neurons failed to migrate (no gray matter in a portion)
Lissencephaly: smooth brain that lacks characteristic sulci and gyri
Both conditioned are due to lack of reelin leading to failure of neurons to migrate to proper places

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19
Q

Cortical organization/synapse formation: (20 weeks-years):

A

once neurons arrive at intended spots they sprout dendrites and axons
Synaptogenesis: synapses begin to form between neurons
Synaptic pruning: eliminated unneeded connections

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20
Q

Failure of Cortical organization/synapse formation

A

Polymicrogyria: too many gyri in the cerebral hemispheres
Frontal lobe is crowded due to lack of pruning

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21
Q

Myelination: (birth and beyond)

A

neuron axons become coated with myelin
This helps with the speeding up of the electrical impulse transmission
Peas about 1 year after birth: infants gain greater control of their bodies and begin to develop the ability to communicate verbally

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22
Q

Failure of myelination

A

Hypomyelination: reduced ability to form myelin resulting in intellectual disability, jerky movements, paresis, muscle atrophy, dysarthria

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23
Q

Frontal lobe

A

reasoning, planning, motor movement (CEO), speech, thoughts, expressive language (speaking, writing)

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24
Q

Parietal lobe

A

sensory perception and interpretation, body awareness, touch

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25
Occipital lobe
vision
26
Temporal lobe
memory, receptive language (listening, reading)
27
Neuroplasticity
the brain's ability to adapt and change by forming new connections and pathways, allowing it to learn, adapt, and recover from injuries or damage
28
Nourishment of the brain: cerebral arteries
The blood supply of the brain (up to brain from front and back of neck oxygenated rich blood) Front supply: internal carotids- form middle cerebral arteries, then anterior cerebral arteries Back supply: vertebral arteries (basilar) Posterior cerebral arteries
29
Temporal lobes (lateral surface of the brain)
MCA
30
front portion and covers the medial surface of the brain (internal along the longitudinal fissure)
ACA
31
occipital lobe
PCA
32
Protection of the brain: meninges, BBB:
Homeostasis for the brain (balances neurotransmitters and hormones, lets small oxygen in, transports glucose in). Protects against foreign invaders (keeps large molecules like infection, toxins out)
33
You want to pass thru BBB
oxygen, sugar, white blood cells, ibuprofen, mental health meds
34
You do not want to pass thru BBB
Infection, inflammation (meningitis). Hypertension (high blood pressure) headaches damage. Radiation. Trauma to head or vessels. Developmental problems with BBB (in children).
35
Waste removal: CSF and venous system:
Veins carry deoxygenated blood away from the brain and back to the heart/lungs. Blood from superficial and cerebral veins is funneled into 4 sinuses. (superior sagittal, transverse, occipital, sigmoid) CSF interacts with the venous system, waste from CSF is picked up by the veins.
36
CN l
Olfactory Origin = Olfactory Bulb Function = smell
37
CN ll
Optic Origin = Thalamus Function = vision
38
CN lll
Oculomotor Origin = Midbrain Function = motor: moves eyes left and right, controls eyelid Parasympathetic: pupil constrictor
39
CN lV
Trochlear Origin = Midbrain Function = eyeball movement
40
CN V
Trigeminal Origin = Pons Function = motor: chewing muscles Sensory: touch, pain, temperature, and vibration for face, mouth, anterior ⅔ of tongue
41
CN Vl
Abducens Origin = Pons Function = rotates eyes out
42
CN Vll
Facial Origin = Pons Function = motor: muscles of the face (expression) Sensory: sensation near the ears Special sensory: taste in anterior ⅔ of tongue Parasympathetic: salivary glands
43
CN Vlll
Vestibulocochlear Origin = Pons/Medulla junction Function = hearing and balance
44
CN lX
Glossopharyngeal Origin = Pons/Medulla junction Function = motor: pharyngeal movement Sensory: middle ear, pharynx, posterior ⅓ of tongue Parasympathetic: parotoid gland (salivation) Special sensory: taste of posterior ⅓ of tongue
45
CN X
Vagus Origin = Medulla Function = motor: pharyngeal and laryngeal movement Parasympathetic: heart, lungs, digestive tract Sensory: pharynx, blood pressure Special sensory: taste from epiglottis and pharynx
46
CN Xl
Accessory Origin = Medulla, spinal cord (junction) Function = neck and shoulder muscles
47
CN Xll
Hypoglossal Origin = Medulla Function = muscles of the tongue
48
Corticobulbar tract:
cortex to brainstem = controls the contralateral head via the cranial nerves
49
Corticospinal tract:
cortex to spinal cord = controls the contralateral body via spinal nerves (75% decussates contralaterally)
50
Dysarthria
as disorder of motor speech disorder at the neuromuscular junction (execution) 92% of motor speech disorders Signs: speech that is unclear, slurred, or uncoordinated due to weakness in CNS or PNS causing problems affecting respiration, phonation, resonance, and articulation Damage: primary motor cortex, brainstem, nerves
51
Apraxia
: a disorder of motor speech at the programming/planning level 8% of motor speech disorders Signs: searching & groping for articulatory placement w/ NO weakness/muscleature abnormality Damage: broca’s area, premotor cortex, supplementary motor area
52
Aphasia
an acquired multimodal disorder of language (listening, reading, writing, speaking) Brocas Wernikes Global
53
Flaccid
Direct motor LMN (Bell’s Palsy, accidents in surgery) Weakness, short phrases, breathy, monopitch, hypernasality, imprecise
54
Spastic
Direct motor (stroke, car accident, TBI) stiff/rigid muscles, harsh/strained, monopitch, hypernasality, slow speech, imprecise
55
Hyperkinetic
Indirect motor Basal Ganglia Harsh voice, monopitch, loud, imprecise, distorted vowels involuntary movements Huntington’s Disease
56
Hypokinetic
Indirect motor Substantia Nigra and dopamine production Reduced range in motion, breathy, monopitch, reduced syllable stress, variable stress rate, imprecise consonants Parkinson’s
57
Frontal lobe
Prefrontal cortex: planning cortex, personality, decision making, moderating social behavior Frontal eye fields: controls eye movement Lateral- depressive Medial- manic (Phineas Gage) Broca’s Area (44 and 45) 44 (pars opercularis) involved in coordination of speech organs 45 (pars triangularis) involved in syntax and planning/programming of verbal responses
58
Parietal lobe
Primary sensory cortex: vibration, proprioception, touch Supramarginal gyrus: involved in phonological system (sound out words) damage-phonological dyslexia Angular gyrus: reading and math Somatosensory association cortex: sensation and refining motor movement for speech and writing
59
Occipital
Visual cortices: Dorsal stream: the where of vision analyzes motion and spatial relationships Ventral stream: the what of vision, analyzes forms, colors, faces Diplopia: double vision Prosopagnosia: inability to recognize faces
60
Temporal
Wernicke’s (22): Involved in attaching meaning to auditory information, damaged=Wernicke’s aphasia (verbal jargon and lack of understanding others speech) Inferior temporal area: processing of auditory and language information, reading facial emotions Primary auditory cortex: Heschl’s gyrus: auditory information from the ears via CN VIII and the auditory pathway Parahippocampal gyrus: associated with declarative memory (facts or personal memory) Fusiform gyrus: important in remembering and naming seen objects
61
Cingulate cortex
“Band that encircles” 23-26 30-33 sandwiched between corpus callosum and frontal and parietal lobes. Is part of the limbic system and has connections to the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus “filter/focus”
62
Insular
Programming of facial reactions. Sensorimotor refinement for speaking and writing
63
Anatomical
palms up, arms stretched, forward facing
64
Saggital
lateral cut
65
Coronal
front and back
66
Transverse
away from the body’s midline (horizontal cut)
67
Superior
from a high position
68
Inferior
from a low position
69
Anterior
toward the stomach (Ventral)
70
Posterior
toward the back (Dorsal)
71
Lateral
away from the midline
72
Medial
towards the midline
73
Proximal
point nearest the limb attachment
74
Distal
point farthest from the limb attachment
75
Central
toward the center (CNS, brain, spinal cord)
76
Peripheral
toward the outer surface (PNS, cranial and spinal nerves)
77
Ipsilateral
on the same side
78
Contralateral
opposite side
79
Prone
face/ventral side is down
80
Supine
face/ventral side is up “on spine”
81
Adduct
bring structures together (ex. phonation)
82
Flexion
bending a joint “flexing”
83
Abduct
move structures apart (ex. breathing)
84
Extension
straightening a joint
85
CNS
central nervous system Brain Spinal cord
86
PNS
Cranial nerves 12 Spinal nerves 31
87
Polarization
there is a resting membrane with energy potential due to the concentration gradient and electrical gradient (-70 mV charge): loaded neuron More K+ inside More Na+ outside
88
Depolarization
the equaling of concentration and electrical gradients (chemical & electrical firing) Na+ rushes in via passive transfer which triggers an action potential down the axon (nodes of ranvier due to myelin) K+ goes out Chemical firing as neurotransmitters are released
89
Repolarization
reloading: The concentration and electrical gradients are re-established Na+ is pumped out via active transport (getting back to -170 mV) K+ pumps in
90
Ischemic
loss of blood flow to the brain due to a blockage (area of deprived oxygen for too long is infarct/dead tissue): 75% Embolic: blockage travels to the brain Thrombotic: blockage arises in the brain Transient: temporary blockage
91
Hemorrhagic:
bleeding in the brain Intra-axial: anything inside the brain (intracerebral hemorrhage) Extra-axial: anything outside the brain/surrounding structures (bleed in the skull but outside the brain = meninges)
92
subdural
hemotoma
93
Subarachnoid
hemorrhage
94
FAST
the signs and symptoms of stroke are face droop, arms drift down, speech slurring, time calling immediately
95
Form
Phonology: the study of the smallest units in a language system (ex. /d/) Morphology: the study of the smallest units of meaning in a sentence (ex. dogs=dog, s) Syntax: concerned with the structure of sentences, specifically word order and sentence organization.
96
Content
(semantics: The meaning The meaning of words (dog), the meaning of words in combination (dog barks)
97
Use
The practical use of language with others. Ex. pragmatic rules- in conversation it is typical to maintain eye contact, and face each other.
98
Auditory comprehension
Cochlea to Cochlear nucleus CNC to Thalamus Thalamus to PAC PAC to Wernicke’s Wernicke’s to Broca’s
99
Visual comprehension
eye/optic nerve to thalamus thalamus to visual cortex Dorsal stream (where of vision) Ventral stream (what of vision) to anterior reading system
100
Oral production
Prefrontal cortex to Broca’s area to SMA to motor cortex to muscles for speech
101
Written production
Prefrontal cortex to Broca's area to premotor cortex to motor cortex to muscles of dominant hand left superior parietal lobe coordinates visuospatial elements of writing
102
Central Alexia
(damage is to one of the 3 reading systems)
103
Phonological Alexia
(parietotemporal damage) difficulty reading non words, sounding out phonemes (phope reads as phone)
104
Surface Alexia
(occipitotemporal damage) difficulty recognizing irregular words (yacht, colonel)
105
Deep/Semantic Alexia
(occipitotemporal damage) difficulty with meaning, substituting for associated words (ex. Knight for castle
106
Nonsemantic Alexia
(damage is close to Wernicke’s) can read but cannot attach meaning to it
107
Peripheral Alexia
(damage is to something that helps with reading but is not apart of the 3 reading systems)
108
Pure Alexia
(alexia without agraphia) disconnect in the ability to read and understand
109
Neglect Alexia
(parietal lobe) ex. See see side of the page but not the right, mild cases may miss first word on a page
110
Attentional Alexia
(prefrontal cortex) distracted, leads to skipping over words which leads to misunderstanding
111
Central Agraphia
(L hemisphere damage)
112
Phonological Agraphia:
trouble writing nonwords or non concrete words
113
Surface Agraphia
inability to spell irregular words
114
Deep/semantic Agraphia
submitting one word for another (cat for dog)
115
Peripheral Agraphia
graphemic, spatial, allographic, apraxic
116
Graphemic Agraphia:
attentional issues, pulled back and forth skip letters
117
Apraxic Agraphia
groping with hand movements (can’t write on paper)
118
Allographic Agraphia
switching between different fonts when writing (cursive, uppercase, etc)
119
Spatial Agraphia
difficulty with space (writing close together, slanted)
120
Alexia
an acquired disorder of reading
121
Agraphia
an acquired disorder of writing
122
Fluent aphasia
Wernicke’s Conduction Anomic
123
Nonfluent aphasia
Global Broca’s
124
Oral Prep:
Voluntary and variable in length Mixed with saliva, broken down to form a puree Oral breathing stops, nasal breathing takes over Labial seal established
125
Oral transit
Voluntary and one second in length Begins once mastication stops Bolus formed, tongue ramp formed, bolus is squeezed back Labial seal maintained, nasal breathing continues
126
Pharyngeal phase
Involuntary about one second Bolus contracts faucial arches and velum elevates Vocal cords adduct, breathing pauses Larynx up/forward, epiglottis lowers, throat squeezes, UES opens
127
Esophageal stage
Involuntary and variable in length (8-20 sec) Peristaltic waves and gravity move bolus to stomach UES (cricopharyngeus muscle) is contracted to prevent reflux Breathing resumes
128
Mastication:
Trigeminal nerve (CN lV): innervates the muscles for mastication (chewing) Mandibular elevators: masseter, temporalis, and medial pterygoid Mandibular depressors: mylohyoid, anterior belly of digastric muscle, and lateral pterygoid
129
Salivation
Saliva works along side of mastication to break down food (consists of water and enzymes) Parotid glands: stimulated by CN lX Submandibular glands stimulated by CN Vll sublingual glands stimulated by CN Vll
130
Actions of the oral stage
Labial seal: CN Vll Tongue retraction: CN V Anterior to posterior movement
131
Actions of the Pharyngeal stage
Soft palate closure CN X, CN Xl, and CN lV Laryngeal closure CN X Laryngeal elevation CN V, Vll, Xll Pharyngeal constriction CN X, CN Xl
132
Actions of the Esophageal Stage
Esophageal opening: CN X relaxes the cricopharyngeal muscle Esophageal constriction: CN X (peristalsis of cervical, thoracis and abdominal portions)
133
Potential causes of dysphagia Neurological
Stroke TBI Spinal Cord Injury (22.5%) Cervical SCI (80%) Degenerative Diseases Brain tumors
134
Potential causes of dysphagia Mechanical
Acute inflammations (ex. Tonsillitis) Cancer Cervical Spinal Disease NG tubes Artificial airways
135
Potential effects of dysphagia
Malnutrition, dehydration, aspiration pneumonia
136
The brainstem nuclei: the swallowing center of the medulla
The NTS receives taste, touch, respiratory and cardiovascular input and sends info to the NA Nucleus Tractus Solitarius: Sensory V, Vll, lX, X Nucleus Ambiguus: Motor lX, X, Xll
137
Neurology of cough and swallow reflexes
1. Afferent fibers convey sensory information from cough receptors in swallowing tract 2. Info registers in the cough center of the brainstem 3. Efferent signals are sent from cough center to respiratory muscles and larynx to generate cough Helpful: to get food/object out of airway Harmful: virus/sick, dry cough “Bad” cough: damage to vocal folds (pain, strain) “Good cough”: Clear lungs when something is stuck in airway
138
Cortical and subcortical controls:
Primary motor cortex: activates the voluntary muscles of swallowing Primary sensory cortex: processes the sensation of eating Insula: may mediate motor and sensory info for swallowing; assisting control Anterior Cingulate Cortex: may provide the attention for swallowing Premotor cortex: may play a role in the motor planning of the swallow Thalamus and Basal Ganglia: may incorporate sensory information from food/liquid during the swallow
139
Sustained attention
Focus on a stimulus over a period of time (ex. Assignment, exams, reading, writing, listening, speaking)
140
Alternating attention
: Shifting focus from one task to another and then back (ex. Taking notes while listening to someone talk, TBI patients cannot listen and write notes at the same time)
141
Selective attention
Focus on a stimulus while filtering out competing stimuli (ex. Study and tune out others talking, Dr. walks in and TV is on)
142
Divided attention
Focus on 2 stimuli at the same time (ex. Walk and talk) (2 motor tasks at the same time is difficult)
143
Working memory
“a scratch pad” (Manipulation) Involves executive functions, attention and short term memory visuospatial scratch pad: “describe a flower” phonological loop: assembling sounds/words to understand it (ex. Sounding out a word and attaching meaning, word, phrase, sentence level of “I went to the store yesterday”)
144
short term memory
Storage for small amounts of info needed for short time (5-9 pieces time: seconds) (ex. Zip codes, phone numbers)
145
long term memory
Declarative: conscious, willful recall. You declare facts or events to others Episodic: Spring Break 2025 Semantic: remembering the date of your friends birthday Non-Declarative: “not sure when you learned something” Procedural: riding a bike, brushing your teeth Priming: formed over the years “if someone said red what do you picture”
146
Executive function
Cognitive functions that order and manage all other cognitive functions (ex. Attention, memory) for the purpose of setting and attaining goals (prefrontal cortex is essential)
147
Right Hemisphere Disorder:
Linguistic deficits: rambling speech, poor coherence in producing/comprehending conversation, poor comprehension of humor, poor pragmatic skills. Extra linguistic deficits: aprosody lack of producing and interpreting emotion Cognition: poor attention, neglect, poor episodic memory, poor restraint, initiative and order, denial of deficits
148
TBI
MVA, assault, fall, blast, collision in sports (concussion) Symptoms: headache, nausea, cognitive, speech and/or language issues Deficits in: attention, memory, and executive functions
149
Dementia
Dementia is a group of progressive neurological disorders that lead to cognitive decline (Alzheimer's, Parkinson’s, Huntington’s)
150
Dysphagia
Disorder of swallowing
151
Coma
Disorder of consciousness
152
Neglect
Disorder of attention

CSD 401 (3 decks)

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