final exam

Question 1

conformity vs. compliance vs. obedience

Answer 1

Conformity - changing behavior in response to explicit or implicit pressure (real or imagined) from others
Do as others do

Compliance - changing behavior by responding favorably to explicit requests from others
Do as others want

Obedience - changing behavior by responding favorably to an explicit demands from someone who has power over you
Do as others command

Question 2

Reasons for automatic conformity/automatic mimicry

Answer 2

1) Ideomotor Action: When we see others behave in a particular way, that behavior is brought to mind, we are more likely to behave that way ourselves

2) Preparation for Social Influence: Our tendency to mimic others is strong when we feel a need to affiliate with others and when the others are well liked -> people who are mimicked are more prosocial afterwards because people like those who mimic them

Question 3

Conscious Conformity (informational vs. normative social influence, when is each most effective)

Answer 3

Informational -> Using others’ behavior as valid information about what is appropriate in a situation (INTERNALIZATION)
-Occurs when we feel low in knowledge and competence, or the situation is difficult and ambiguous -> we want to be right

Normative -> Using others’ behavior as guides for how to fit in and avoid disapproval (previous knowledge on what is appropriate) (TEMPORARY)
-Occurs when situation is clear/unambiguous -> we fear social consequences from departing from norm

Question 4

Difference between Sherif and Asch studies

Answer 4

Sherif -> informational conformity -> relied on others for valid information

Asch -> normative conformity -> gave wrong answers to conform when in a group

Question 5

What factors impact conformity? Increase or Decrease?

Answer 5

Group Size -> increase
Group Unanimity -> increase
Anonymity -> decrease
Expertise & Status -> increase
Culture -> depends on inter vs. independent, and tight vs. loose
Gender -> women conform more

Question 6

foot-in-the-door vs. door-in-the-face vs. that’s-not-all (differences, what mechanism makes these work)

Answer 6

foot in the door -> small request, follow up by asking for more bigger ones

door in the face -> requesting a very large favor that will obviously be declined, then follow it up with a more modest request

that’s not all -> adding on to an original offer to make it more attractive

“Door-in-the-face” and “That’s-not-all!” based on norm of reciprocity

Question 7

negative state relief hypothesis

Answer 7

negative moods increase compliance since doing something for somebody else helps make you feel better

Question 8

descriptive vs prescriptive norms

Answer 8

descriptive -> Objective, factual description of what most people do

prescriptive -> What most people should do according to some rule or tradition/what ought to be

Question 9

According to Milgram’s obedience studies, what factors can decrease obedience?

Answer 9

Making the “learner” more salient

making the “authority” less salient

making it easier to disobey rather than increasing desire to disobey

Question 10

Why was milgrams ideal?

Answer 10

1) Released from responsibility

2) step by step involvement

3) lack of practice disobeying authority

Question 11

What did Harlow’s monkey study show?

Answer 11

monkeys preferred warmth and comfort over food

Question 12

Exchange vs Communal Relationships

Answer 12

Exchange -> interactions based on equity and reciprocity

Communal -> sense of “oneness”

Question 13

social exchange theory

Answer 13

people tend to seek out interactions that have more rewards than costs or smallest excess cost possible

Question 14

equity theory

Answer 14

people are motivated to seek fairness in relationships, so costs and rewards are equally shared

Question 15

What are the three main attachment styles? What are the two dimensions of attachment?

Answer 15

Three styles: Secure, Anxious-Ambivalent, Avoidant

Two dimensions: Anxiety and Avoidance

Question 16

Functional Distance

Answer 16

How close you are to someone else in terms of interaction opportunities

Easier to become friends with people you interact with more

proximity is the strongest indicator of whether people will become and remain friends.

Question 17

Westgate Study Findings

Answer 17

residents became friends with people near staircases more than adjacent rooms, due to more interaction opportunities

Question 18

mere exposure effect and exceptions

Answer 18

the more you are exposed to something, the more you like it

exception if it is originally negative stimulus or if you are overexposed

Question 19

how does similarity influence attraction

Answer 19

people tend to like people who are similar to themselves

married people tend to be more similar on core characteristics like extraversion

remember: there is no evidence for opposites attracting… similarity is the rule, complementary is the exception

Question 20

What facial features indicate good health and reproductive fitness?

Answer 20

Symmetrical face (no genetic defects)

average faces, such as composite faces (same reason i think?)

Question 21

halo effect and cultures impact on it

Answer 21

halo effect -> belief that attractive people have a host of positive qualities that extend beyond physical appearance

cultural effect -> individualistic cultures see attractive people as assertive, collectivist cultures see them as empathetic

Question 22

Sex differences in attractiveness

Answer 22

Attractiveness is much more important for women than men

due to parental investment (women are choosier due to resources required to have a child) and because it is a more powerful predictor for their lives than men.

Question 23

What is the investment model of commitment and the three factors behind it?

Answer 23

investment model states that there are three factors to predict a happy, committed relationship
1) relationship satisfaction
2) quality of alternatives
3) investments

Question 24

what are the four horsemen of the apocalypse when it comes to relationship dissatisfaction?

Answer 24

contempt, criticism, defensiveness, stonewalling

Question 25

stereotype vs. prejudice vs. discrimination

Answer 25

Stereotypes * Beliefs that certain attributes are characteristic of members of a particular group Prejudice * Attitudinal affective response (positive or negative) toward a group and its members Discrimination * Favorable or unfavorable treatment of individuals based on their group membership

Question 26

three different perspectives for why we stereotype

Answer 26

Economic Perspective -> outgroup hate forms because they are a threat to your resources Motivational Perspective -> people are motivated to view their ingroup favorably because it enhances self-concept and self-esteem Cognitive Perspective -> Stereotypes can be useful because they decrease the time/effort needed to deal with the environment

Question 27

difference between modern and traditional racism

Answer 27

modern racism -> prejudice directed at racial groups that exist simultaneously to rejection of explicitly racist beliefs. traditional racism -> prejudice against a racial group that is explicitly acknowledged and expressed by the individual.

Question 28

Hodson et al. (1977) findings -> 1 person vs. group

Answer 28

most in the 1 person helped whether black or white If participants didn't help -> clearly racist (traditional racism) most in a group helped the white but not the black if participants didn't help -> other people in group would help (modern racism)

Question 29

How do we measure modern racism?

Answer 29

Survey -> obviously not trustable IAT/implicit association test -> reveal non conscious prejudices Priming -> measuring how fast people respond after a prime AMP/Affect misattribution procedure -> measures how people evaluate a stimulus after a prime

Question 30

Realistic group conflict theory

Answer 30

Associated with the economic perspective when groups compete for limited resources, those groups experience conflict, prejudice, discrimination Prejudice and discrimination should be strongest among groups that stand to lose the most if another group succeeds

Question 31

What successfully helped researchers “reverse” the intergroup conflict between the boys in the Robbers Cave study?

Answer 31

Having both groups work together to accomplish a subordinate goal

Question 32

Social Identity Theory

Answer 32

One's self-concept and self-esteem are derived from both personal identity/accomplishments and achievements/status of the group they belong to

Question 33

Relationship between self-esteem and discrimination

Answer 33

self-esteem can be enhanced by negative evaluations of outgroup

Question 34

Minimal Group Paradigm

Answer 34

readiness to adopt an "us vs. them" mentality Across many different experiments, they found that people tended to prefer their ingroup, even when these group distinctions were meaningless.

Question 35

Results of Duncan's Shoving Study

Answer 35

People are more likely to generalize behaviors and traits (stereotype) they already suspect may be typical of the group member dispositional attribution for stereotype-consistent behavior

Question 36

outgroup homogeneity effect

Answer 36

The tendency to assume that members of outgroups are “all alike,” whereas members of ingroups have differences

Question 37

Subtyping

Answer 37

explaining away exceptions to a given stereotype by creating a subcategory of the stereotyped group that can be expected to be different from the group as a whole

Question 38

Stereotype threat, how does it affect performance

Answer 38

Fear of confirming a stereotype that others have about a group to which they belong. Tends to hinder performance through three factors 1) increased arousal 2) distraction 3) eliciting negative thinking

Question 39

Attributional Ambiguity

Answer 39

Members of stigmatized groups may be uncertain if the treatment they receive is due to themselves personally or due to their group membership can't be sure if their accomplishments/failures were due to themselves or external factors relating to their group

Question 40

when does social facilitation/unfacilitation occur

Answer 40

Enhanced performance during a simple or well-learned task Impaired performance during a difficult or novel task

Question 41

Theories behind the occurrence of social facilitation

Answer 41

Evaluation apprehension -> people's concern for how they might appear to others increase arousal Mere presence -> simply having others around us makes us more alert

Question 42

social loafing/what type of people social loaf

Answer 42

tendency to exert less effort when in a group where individual contributions cannot be monitored Men social loaf more than women individualistic cultures social loaf more than collectivistic

Question 43

groupthink/what leads to it

Answer 43

faulty thinking by members of highly cohesive groups in which the critical scrutiny that should be devoted to the issues at hand is subverted by social pressure to reach consensus high cohesiveness, directive leadership, high stress with low hope to get a better solution than what the leader has.

Question 44

group polarization/risky shift + arguments for why it occurs

Answer 44

group polarization -> the tendency for group decisions tend to be more extreme than those made by individuals risky shift -> group decisions tend to be more risky than individual ones Arguments 1) persuasive arguments -> new arguments from others in the group that go in favor of your opinion, makes the opinion stronger 2) social comparison -> you want to think that you are riskier than the average person if the situation calls for a risky choice.

Question 45

approach-inhibition theory of power

Answer 45

power comes with a sense of control and freedom high power -> quick and rash judgments, action, approach low power -> retreating and careful judgments, inaction, inhibition

Question 46

Power and its impact on behavior (stereotypes, interactions with others, etc.)

Answer 46

More powerful people stereotype more, less accurate in judging emotions, behave in a less constrained and more inappropriate way (sexualized, flirty, unethically)

Question 47

Deindividuation

Answer 47

reduced sense of self-identity and self-regulation when in a large group reduced sense of responsibility enhanced by factors that reduce identifiability (masks, uniforms, darkness)

Question 48

Self-awareness theory

Answer 48

when people focus attention on themselves, they become concerned with self-evaluation and how their current behavior conforms to internal standards and values

Question 49

individuation

Answer 49

enhanced sense of individual identity produced by focusing attention on the self

Question 50

spotlight effect

Answer 50

The belief that more people are focusing on you more than they actually are

Question 51

hostile vs. instrumental aggression

Answer 51

Hostile aggression -> motivated by feelings of anger and hostility Instrumental aggression -> motivated by something other than pure hostility, wanting to gain attention, resources, etc.

Question 52

Effect of heat on aggression

Answer 52

heat increases physiological arousal primes the emotion of anger, people misattribute the source of this arousal/anger

Question 53

Effects of violent video games on aggression, according to studies

Answer 53

Violent video games increase aggresive behavior reduce prosocial behavior increase aggressive thoughts and emotions increase blood pressure

Question 54

social rejection and aggression

Answer 54

Social rejection fires parts of the brain that also respond to physical pain, increasing aggression when they feel constantly rejected or hurt socially

Question 55

income inequality and aggression

Answer 55

Income inequality increases aggression through three ways 1) social rejection -> people at the bottom feel left out 2) lack of cohesion -> creates an us vs them mentality 3) violent competition -> fiercer competition for economic resources

Question 56

presence of guns and aggression

Answer 56

Presence of guns can increase aggression, especially in people who already have aggressive thoughts. Berkowitz shock experiment shows that the group that gave the most shocks were people who were already angry and had the gun as a stimulus.

Question 57

Dehumanization

Answer 57

tendency to attribute nonhuman characteristics to outgroup two types human nature -> comparing outgroup to inanimate objects (robots) human uniqueness -> comparing outgroup to other species (animals)

Question 58

how to reduce feelings of anger

Answer 58

step away from your anger and view it from far away catharsis (large spike of anger to let it all out) does NOT work

Question 59

culture of honor

Answer 59

culture defined by its members' strong concern about their own and others' reputations leads to hypersensitivity to insults and increased willingness to use violence US South is best example of this We can tell they aren't just more aggressive generally because their amount of argument-related murders are the most in the US

Question 60

stepfamilies and violence

Answer 60

increased violence in stepfamilies due to no inclusive fitness because it isn't their own genetics

Question 61

gender differences in aggression

Answer 61

men account for basically all of the aggressive crimes like rape, murder, and assault men also account for most of the victims of these cases as well men are more physically violent -> have to compete for resources more women are more relationally violent

Question 62

precarious manhood hypothesis

Answer 62

combines cultural and evolutionary theories as to why men are more aggressive Competition, status contests, violence, economic conditions, make male identities 1) elusive and 2) tenuous perceived threat to gender identity leads to public action to prove masculinity

Question 63

reactive devaluation

Answer 63

attach less value to an offer in negotiation simply because it was offered if they're offering it, it must be bad for us

Question 64

simple vs complex reasoning

Answer 64

simple -> few points, few connections between each point, tends to be more extreme complex -> many points, many connections between points, tends to be more modern/complicated politicians tend to be simple when campaigning but complex when elected into office and working

Question 65

strategies for peace making

Answer 65

face to face communication actual apologizing and forgiving imagining the act

Question 66

three motives for prosocial behavior

Answer 66

two selfish and one selfless 1) social reward 2) personal distress 3) empathic concern

Question 67

empathy impact on altruism

Answer 67

A person whose helpful behavior is driven by empathy will help more regardless of any social rewards

Question 68

Situational determinants of altruism

Answer 68

1) presence of others -> decreases altruism when crowd is larger due to things such as bystander effect and diffusion of responsibility 2) business -> people are less likely to help if they have other things that they think are important 3) victim characteristics -> more likely to help a victim when the harm is clear and need for help is unambiguous

Question 69

Explanations for the rural-urban difference in helping rates

Answer 69

1) stimulus overload -> urban people are too busy, can't pay attention to everything 2) diversity hypothesis -> people are more likely to help out similar others, people are much more similar in rural areas, cities are too diverse 3) social reward -> smaller community makes it easier to be recognized for your help

Question 70

social class and altruism

Answer 70

people from lower social classes are more altruistic relative scarcity of resources makes them more attuned to others understand the experience of living in harsher conditions

Question 71

reciprocal altruism

Answer 71

tendency to help others, expecting that they will help us later in the future

Question 72

prisoner's dillemma

Answer 72

two prisoners are arrested and are prompted to snitch if neither snitch they both get reduced time if one snitches they get free and the other stays in prison if both snitch then both are in prison with NO reduced time

Question 73

Why is cooperation and gossip important

Answer 73

anticipating other interactions with the same person makes us cooperate so that we have a good reputation gossip allows for the spread of information regarding other people's reputation

Question 74

construal effect on prisoner game

Answer 74

defection happened more with hostile words when the game was called something other than prisoners game, cooperation was much more common