FINAL EXAM Flashcards
(141 cards)
1
Q
What does pathology refer to?
A
medical science concerned with the cause, development, structural & functional changes, and natural history associated with diseases.
2
Q
What does the respiratory system consist of, what do red blood cells combine with in the system?
A
airways, lungs, blood vessels, and muscle tissue. Red blood cells combine with O2 and CO2
3
Q
Respiration is the way an organism builds high energy molecules, primarily ATP, for metabolic processes. Respiration includes what factors?
A
Includes gas exchange between animal and the environment and the transportation of oxygen and carbon dioxide along with ATP production
4
Q
The partial pressure of oxygen ____ in the alveoli and ____ in the blood of the pulmonary capillaries
A
High, low
5
Q
What is the role of hemoglobin (Hb) in the circulatory system?
A
Hb transports oxygen from the lungs to the tissues & cells and transports CO2 to the lungs.
6
Q
Is the partial pressure of oxygen low in the alveoli?
A
No
7
Q
Are neurons sensitive to blood Pco2 changes?
A
Yes
8
Q
High CO2 levels in blood result in
A
an increase in the respiration rate
9
Q
High CO2 partial pressure produces carbonic acid (H2CO3), which does what to the blood pH?
A
It lowers blood pH.
10
Q
What factors are involved in maintaining homeostasis?
A
temperature, nutrients, minerals, and pH
11
Q
CO mixes and binds with hemoglobin (Hb) in the blood to form carboxyhemoglobin (COHb). Which is ___ times stronger than the bonds between O2 and Hb
A
200 times stronger
12
Q
What are the functions of circulating blood?
A
Transportation (e.g., O2, CO2), Regulation (e.g., hormones), and Immunity (i.e., antibodies, white blood cells)
13
Q
Erythropoietin is a hormone made by the kidney. What does erythropoietin stimulate?
A
The production of red blood cells (RBCs).
14
Q
Which about the circulatory system and the pulmonary veins/artery is correct?
A
The pulmonary veins transfer oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart. The pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs.
15
Q
What components does the circulatory system have?
A
nervous system sensors, neurotransmitter, hormones
16
Q
What are the major components of the lymphatic system?
A
lymph, lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, thymus, spleen, tonsils, bone marrow
17
Q
What is Angina Pectoris a sign of?
A
Angina Pectoris is a sign that the blood supply to the heart is inadequate.
18
Q
What are the two main functions of the Kidney?
A
waste removal and osmoregulation.
19
Q
What is the structural unit of the kidney?
A
The structural unit of the kidney is the nephron.
20
Q
How do the Kidneys regulate electrolyte balance in the blood?
A
reabsorption and secretion.
21
Q
What are the Kidney’s main Functions?
A
maintain levels of blood pressure, osmolarity, homeostatic function, and interact with hormones.
22
Q
What are the Kidney processes?
A
filtration, reabsorption, and secretion process.
23
Q
What does the Renal System consist of?
A
kidney, ureters, and the urethra
24
Q
How much fluid does the renal system filter out daily?
A
approximately 200 liters
25
What is the nephron and what is it composed of?
structural and functional unit of the kidney, composed of a renal corpuscle and a renal tubule. There are about 1,000,000 nephrons in each human kidney.
26
What is ultrafiltration?
Ultrafiltration is filtration under high pressure where Bowman's capsule acts as ultra-filters.
## Footnote
The main reason for ultrafiltration is the difference in the size of afferent and efferent arterioles.
27
What is Tubular Reabsorption?
absorption of useful substances from the nephric filtrate into the blood by diffusion and active transport.
28
What is Tubular Secretion?
Tubular Secretion is the secretion of harmful substances from the blood into the nephric filtrate by the cells of the Distal Convoluted Tubule.
29
Nervous System Organization - All animals must be able to respond to environmental stimuli (e.g., heat). How do they do this?
Animals use sensory receptors to detect stimulus and motor effectors to respond to stimulus. The nervous system links sensory receptors and motor receptors. The nervous system consists of neurons and supporting cells.
30
The nervous system consists of two major divisions: What are they and what do they consist of?
The **central nervous system** (CNS) consists of the brain and the spinal cord, which are enclosed in the skull and vertebral column, respectively. **The peripheral nervous system** (PNS) consists of all the neural tissue outside of the brain and spinal cord. The PNS includes the cranial nerves and spinal nerves, sensory receptors, and ganglia (cell bodies (somas) of neurons that lie outside the CNS). The nerves connect all other parts of the body with the CNS.
31
65. NEURONS are considered the simplest functional unit of nervous tissue. Neurons can respond to _________, ________, _______ that allows them to communicate with other cells.
stimulation, conducting electrical signals, and secreting chemicals
32
66. Vertebrates have three types of neurons which are what and do what function?
**Sensory neurons** (afferent neurons) carry impulses to central nervous system (cns), **motor neurons** (efferent neurons) (muscles and glands), **interneurons**(association neurons) (learning and memory)
33
What are the two main parts the peripheral nervous system is divided into and what is their functions?
**Autonomic nervous system** (ANS): Controls involuntary bodily functions and regulates glands. **Somatic nervous system** (SNS): Controls muscle movement and relays information from ears, eyes, and skin to the central nervous system.
34
68. Nerve Cell Function: What happens during a nerve impulse? A nerve impulse begins when a neuron receives a chemical stimulus. The nerve impulse travels down the axon membrane as an electrical action potential to the axon terminal. The axon terminal releases neurotransmitters that carry the nerve impulse to the next cell. QUESTION: **A nerve impulse occurs because of**
A difference in electrical charge across the plasma membrane of a neuron.
35
69. Synapses – Synapses are _____ and there are two basic types of synapses: ______ and _____
Specialized intercellular junctions with the other neurons, muscle cells, or with gland cells. & electrical and chemical
36
What are neurotransmitters and what is their job?
70. Neurotransmitters are **chemical messengers** that your body cannot function without. Their job is to carry chemical signals (“messages”) from one neuron (nerve cell) to the next target cell. The next target cell can be another nerve cell, a muscle cell, or a gland.
37
What part of the nervous system is responsible for the control of bodily functions not consciously directed?
71. **The Autonomic Nervous System** breathing, the heartbeat, and digestive processes. The autonomic nervous system controls smooth or cardiac muscle or glands.
38
The central nervous system consists of
the brain and the spinal cord.
39
74. Neurons are
the simplest functional unit of nervous tissue.
40
75. Regarding the function of neurons, what are the different neuron's jobs?
sensory neurons carry impulses to central nervous system (CNS), motor neurons carry impulses from CNS to effectors (i.e., muscles and glands), interneurons carry sensory information and regulate motor activity, i.e., integration.
41
76. Regarding Neurotransmitters, a) neurotransmitters are electrical messengers. b) neurotransmitters carry signals from one neuron to target cells. c) neurotransmitters do not include the hormone acetylcholine. d) neurotransmitters cannot cross synapses. e) all the above f) none of the above
B. neurotransmitters carry signals from one neuron to target cells
42
77. What is TRUE regarding the peripheral, and autonomic Nervous system?
The peripheral system receives data from the environment and the autonomic system controls functions not consciously directed (e.g., heartbeat)
43
78. The basic pathway for a nerve impulse is described by the stimulus response model. A stimulus is
A change in the environment that is detected by a receptor. Receptors change environmental stimuli into electrical nerve impulses. Nerve impulses are transmitted via neurons to the CNS where decision-making occurs. Response signals are transmitted via neurons to effector organs
44
79. Sensory System – tissue level (nervous tissue) Tissues are made up of only a single type of cell. Nervous tissue is found
In the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. It stimulates muscle contraction, creates an awareness of the environment, and plays a key role in emotions, memory, and reasoning
45
An organ is
A collection of tissues that structurally form a functional unit specialized to perform a particular function.
46
The Reflex Process: The central nervous system can
interpret signals from sensory neurons and respond to them extremely quickly via the motor neurons without any need for the brain to be involved.
47
Sensory information is conveyed to the CNS and perceived in a four-step process and Step# 1 is
Stimulation
48
Sensory information is conveyed to the CNS and perceived in a four-step process. Step #2 is
**Transduction** The most fundamental function of a sensory system is the translation of a sensory signal to an electrical signal in the nervous system. This takes place at the sensory receptor. The change in electrical potential that is produced is called the receptor potential.
49
Sensory information is conveyed to the CNS and perceived in a four-step process. Step #3 is
**Transmission** Sensory information is transmitted to the central nervous system, which includes the brain and spinal cord. The CNS is responsible for integrating sensory information and directing any necessary response.
50
85. Sensory information is conveyed to the CNS and perceived in a four-step process. Step# 4 is
**Interpretation**. The Thalamus evaluates and relays sensory information in the CNS. It receives afferent impulses from sensory receptors located throughout the body and processes the information for distribution to the appropriate cortical area. Motor areas control motor activities, while sensory areas receive sensory information.
51
86. Sensory (nervous system) Receptors are biological transducers that convert energy from external/internal environments into electrical impulses, e.g., And what are the different type of receptors and their functions?
**Baroreceptors** monitor blood pressure. **Mechanoreceptor** involved in hearing, vibration & balance. **Gravity receptors** detect body position. **Chemoreceptors** are used in the senses of taste and smell & are also important in monitoring the chemical composition of blood.
52
87. One of the symptoms of COVID-19 is loss of smell. It can occur during the illness and linger for weeks, months or years. How does COVID-19 causes loss of smell?
Olfactory support cells, (not neurons) are vulnerable to novel coronavirus infection.
53
88. The Retina: Rods & Cones Vertebrate retina contains two types of photoreceptors which are what and do what functions.
**Rods** this photoreceptor is responsible for **black-and-white** vision when illumination is dim. and **Cones** this photoreceptor is responsible for **color vision and high visual sharpness**
54
Photoreceptors are neurons found in the retina that ________.
convert light into electrical signals that stimulate physiological processes
55
Color Vision: Color blindness is due to an inherited lack of one or more types of cones. People with normal vision are ________. Color blind individuals are ________. Color blindness is a sex-linked recessive trait and is more common in ___.
trichromats (have all 3 cones) & dichromats (have 2 cones) & men
56
79. The Digestive System breaks down food into nutrients such as _____, _____, _____. Nutrients are absorbed in the bloodstream. Blood carries these products to the ________. The monomers produced are used by cells for energy, growth, and repair. Unused materials are discarded as feces. T or F
carbohydrates, nucleic acids (DNA, RNA) fats and proteins & liver via the hepatic portal vein.
57
80. Vertebrate Digestive Systems – function (process food): Is made up of a gastrointestinal tract and accessory organs, which process food as follows:
**mouth and pharynx** food entry, **esophagus** conveys food to stomach, **stomach**preliminary digestion, kinsman **small intestine** digestion/absorption, **large intestine** absorption of H 2 0/ions and **rectum:**expels waste.
58
81.Accessory Organs are what and do what functions
**Liver**- produces bile, **Gallbladder** - stores and concentrates bile, **Pancreas**- produces pancreatic juice and digestive enzymes, bicarbonate buffer.
58
82. Small Intestine consist of what and receives what from each organ (the liver/gallblander, pancreas and the stomach) & what do microvilli do
It consists of duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. It receives chyme from the stomach. It receives digestive enzymes & HCO 3 from pancreas. It receives bile from the liver and gallbladder. microvilli participate in digestion and absorption.
59
What is absorption
83. Absorption– summary: amino acids, monosaccharides, and fatty acids (monoglycerides) are transported through epithelial cells to blood which make them accessible to liver cells, and the circulatory system. (goes though the lymphatic system not the blood)
60
What is large intestine function
The Large Intestine (colon)–summary(structure/function)The small intestine empties into the large. The colon is much shorter than small intestine, has larger diameter. The colon reabsorbs water, electrolytes, and vitamin k. The colon prepares waste for expulsion.
61
95% of the body's microbiota live in the colon, where their cells outnumber the total cells in the human body. QUESTION: In the Large intestine, The bacteria in the microbiome help in
Digestion, regulate our immune system, protect against bacteria that cause disease, and produce vitamins including B vitamins B12, thiamine and riboflavin, and Vitamin K, which is needed for blood coagulation
62
What are the features of the large intestine in regards to the pancreas
Features of the Large Intestine and Beyond – summary Accessory Organs: j) The pancreas secretes fluids into the duodenum via the pancreatic duct. The fluids include enzymes: trypsin and chymotrypsin, amylase, lipase. k) The pancreas secretes bicarbonate which neutralizes the acidic chyme. l) The pancreas also secretes endocrine gland hormones form the islets of Langerhans – insulin, glucagon.
63
Accessory Organs – The Liver has what functions for the body
Body’s largest internal organ. **Secretes bile, which are bile pigments (waste products) and bile salts (for emulsification of fats). Chemically modifies the substances absorbed from the digestive tract before they reach the rest of the body** Ingested alcohol and other drugs are taken into liver cells and metabolized. Removes toxins, pesticides, and carcinogens, converting them to less toxic forms. Regulates levels of steroid hormones. Produces most proteins found in plasma.
64
89. ALL FACTS Accessory Organs - Gallbladder does what functions for the body
Stores and concentrates bile.The arrival of fatty food in the duodenum triggers a neural and endocrine reflex that stimulates the gallbladder to transport bile into the duodenum.
65
90.Physiology: blood glucose - Regulation of blood glucose and how it functions: After a carbohydrate-rich meal. Insulin stimulates
The removal of excess blood glucose by liver and skeletal muscles
66
91. The brain (nervous system) and the endocrine system (hormones) control the ______. The brain controls the ______. While the endocrine system controls ______.
**digestive processes.**& The brain controls the **responses of hunger and satiety** & the endocrine system controls the **release of hormones and enzymes required for digestion of food in the digestive tract.**
67
68
93. The bacterium Helicobacter pylori cause
a stomach infection that can lead to stomach cancer
69
94. The microbiome resides mainly in the large intestine, how does the microbiome function for the body?
helps with digestion, regulates our immune system, protects against bacteria that cause disease, and produces vitamins.
70
In the liver, enzymes convert NH 3 to urea or uric acid by addition of
CO 2 molecules. Urea and uric acid diffuse into the blood and are reabsorbed.
71
Insulin causes the liver cells to
take up glucose and convert it into glycogen.
72
The CNS and the endocrine system control the
digestive processes
73
Animals must obtain some essential nutrients from their diet, what is true about how animals use phosphorus and nitrogen?
Phosphorus affects the production of RNA. Cells use phosphorus in the production of adenosine triphosphate. Cells use nitrogen in the production of proteins.
74
Which of the following is NOT broken down by the digestive system?
Nucleic acids, fats, proteins and ions are all broken down by the digestive system.
75
ALL FACTS Accessory digestive systems includes what organs and what are their functions.
Liver - produces bile, Gallbladder - stores and concentrates bile. Pancreas – produces digestive enzymes, bicarbonate buffer.
76
The Liver is the body’s largest internal organ. The liver secretes bile, what are its other functions?
modifies chemical substances, removes toxins by converting them to less toxic forms, and regulates levels of steroid hormones.
77
48. Functions Of The Kidney- Excretion of nitrogenous waste:
Removal of excess of water and salts
78
Osmoregulation controls the levels of
H 2 O & mineral salts in blood
79
Urine Excretion: Urine is formed by the combined action of
glomerular filtration, tubular re- absorption, and tubular secretion. Urine is carried to the urinary bladder and excreted out of the body.
80
49. Composition Of Urine: Urine is what and contains what in it
Transparent pale-yellow fluid acidic in nature. Contains- water,mineral salts (NaCt), urea, uric acid, creatine, and some excess hormones vitamins etc.
81
50. Glycosauria is diagnosed by
sugar in urine
82
Ketonuria is diagnosed by
ketone bodies inurine
83
Pyuria is diagnosed by
pus cells in urine
84
Hematuria is diagnosed by
blood in urine
85
51. Osmotic Balance: Water in a multicellular body is distributed between.
intracellular compartment and extracellular compartment
86
52. Most vertebrates maintain homeostasis for a
total solute concentration of their
extracellular fluids and concentration of specific inorganic ions
87
53. Important lons: The major cation in extracellular fluids is ____ and the major anion is ____
Sodium, chloride
88
54. Osmotic Pressure, Osmotic movement of water always occurs from a more dilute to a less dilute solution. osmotic pressure
Is the measure of a solution's tendency to take in water by osmosis (that is a measure of concentration difference)
89
osmolarity is
the number of osmotically active moles of solute per liter of solution.
90
A solution with a higher osmolarity exerts
more osmotic pressure than one with a lower osmolarity.
91
Kidneys also regulate
electrolyte balance in the blood by reabsorption and secretion.
92
Kidneys maintain relatively constant levels of
blood volume, pressure, and osmolarity.
93
The homeostatic functions of kidneys are coordinated primarily by
hormones
94
55. Definition: Tonicity measures a solution's ability to change the volume of a cell by
osmosis.
95
hypertonic -
higher osmotic pressure
96
hypotonic-
lower osmotic pressure
97
isotonic -
equal osmotic pressure
98
103. In each cardiac cycle, a sequence of contractions (systoles) and relaxations (diastoles) pumps blood through the heart and the rest of body. What happens during the cardiac cycle in regards to blood?
During cardiac diastole, blood flows into the heart while all the chambers are relaxed. Then the ventricles remain relaxed while the atrial systole pushes blood into the ventricles. Once the atria relax again, ventricle systole pushes blood out of the heart.
99
What do veins have instead of muscles?
Veins. Veins have one-way valves instead of muscles, to stop blood from running back the wrong way. Generally, veins carry deoxygenated blood from the body to the heart, where it can be sent to the lungs.
100
Red blood cell structure is quite simple compared to other cell types as they have no organelles. The most common blood cell type, these biconcave cells have no organelles. A mature red blood cell is a
an anucleate cell – it has no nucleus. This means it contains no DNA.
101
Blood – structure/function Type of Connective Tissue is composed of
Fluid matrix called plasma and several cell types
102
Blood is composed of Blood Cells suspended in Blood Plasma. Plasma, which constitutes what about of blood fluid and contains what minerals?
55% of blood fluid, is mostly water (92% by volume), and contains proteins, glucose, Mineral Ions, Hormones, Carbon Dioxide
103
Blood Plasma is composed of 92% water, and contains what?
Contains solutes: nutrients, waste, and hormones, ions: Na + , Cl - , HCO3, Ca 2+ , Mg 2+ , Cu 2+ , K + , Zn 2+ c), contains proteins: albumin, fibrinogen., contains volume: ~ 5 liters of blood.
104
Red Blood Cells (erythrocytes RBCs – There are 5 million RBCs per microliter of blood, and what do they contain/what is their function?
Mature mammalian RBCs lack nuclei. RBCs of vertebrates contain hemoglobin. RBCs binds and transports oxygen and carbon dioxide.
105
What is pluripotent? In biology, the term “pluripotent” means capable of developing into differentiated cells. Pluripotent cells are
the embryonic stem cells that have the unlimited capacity to divide, self-renew and differentiate into cells of early primary germ cell layers, namely, mesoderm, endoderm, and ectoderm. Development of Red Blood Cells (RBCs) – RBCs develop from pluripotent stem cells.
106
Hematopoiesis is blood cell production. Your body continually makes new blood cells to replace old ones. Hematopoiesis ensures you have
A healthy supply of blood cells to supply oxygen to your tissue (red blood cells), fight infection (white blood cells) and clot your blood when you are injured (platelets). Most blood cells get made in your bone marrow.
107
The cardiac cycle involves heart valves that open and close. In summary, what is the process and the normal BP?
Ventricles relaxed and filling (diastole). Ventricles contracted and pumping (systole). A normal BP which is less than 120 systolic. A normal BP which is less than 80 diastolic.
108
Vertebrate Circulatory Systems – structure and function of the heart
The heart has 4 chambers. The heart has 2 separate atria and 2 separate ventricles. The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the body and delivers it to the right ventricle, which pumps it to the lungs. The left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and delivers it to the left ventricle, which pumps it to the rest of the body.
109
The regulation of the cardiovascular system occurs via a myriad of stimuli, including changing blood volume, hormones, electrolytes, osmolarity, medications, adrenal glands, kidneys, and much more. The parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems also play a key role in the regulation of the cardiovascular system. What is the main functions of the system?
Baroreceptors (nervous system sensor) detect changes in arterial blood pressure. Autonomic nervous system modulates heart rhythm. Norepinephrine (neurotransmitter, hormone) & acetylcholine regulate heart rate. d) blood volume is regulated by 4 hormones, antidiuretic hormone (ADH), aldosterone, atrial natriuretic hormone, nitric oxide (NO). e) blood - leaves the heart through the arteries, veins carry blood back to heart. f) Capillaries - primary function is the exchange of materials between the blood and tissue cells
110
High Blood Pressure (≥140/90 mm Hg) Lowering high blood pressure helps prevent strokes, heart attacks, and kidney problems. Amlodipine belongs to a class of drugs known as what which does what?
calcium channel blockers. It works by relaxing blood vessels so blood can flow more easily.
111
The lymph nodes monitor the lymph flowing into them and __________.The spleen and thymus are __________.
produce cells and antibodies which protect our body from infection and disease. & lymphatic organs that monitor the blood and detect and respond to pathogens and malignant cells.
112
What do lymph pass into
Lymph passes into progressively larger vessels with one-way valves & drains into
subclavian veins.
113
What circulate blood throughout your body
Blood vessels circulate blood throughout your body. They help deliver oxygen to vital organs and tissues and remove waste products. Blood vessels include veins, arteries, and capillaries.
114
What is put aside?
Early in development at the time of gastrulation a small group of cells are "put aside" to later form oocytes and spermatozoa, these cells described as the primordial germ cells (PGCs). These cells differentiate at various times in male testis and female ovary development.
115
What is primordial germ cell
In humans, the primordial germ cell (PGC) is the primary undifferentiated stem cell type that will differentiate towards gametes: spermatozoa or oocytes.
116
128. Functions of the reproductive system include:
Production of egg and sperm cells, transportation and maintenance of these cells, nurturing the developing fetus, and production hormones
117
Where do primordial germ cells travel to and what is the difference between males/females?
Primordial Germ cells travel to developing gonads. Gonads form the ovaries in females and the testes in males. After mitosis, proliferation, germ cells undergo meiosis and differentiate into mature gametes—either eggs or sperm.
118
Functions of ovaries/testes
The ovaries and testes are vital endocrine glands that are responsible for sexual maturation and are our primary reproductive organs. The ovaries produce hormones that provide normal reproductive development, fertility, and the development of female physical characteristics. The testes are the primary reproductive organ in males. They produce hormones that regulate sperm production and the development of male physical characteristics.
119
What is the follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) produced by?
produced by the pituitary gland in the brain that regulates the function of the reproductive system in men and women.
120
What does the Luteinizing hormone (LH) do?
In males, LH stimulates testosterone release by the testes. In females, LH stimulates steroid release from the ovaries, ovulation, and the release of progesterone after ovulation.
121
What does estrogen do?
Iregulating the menstrual cycle, regulates the growth, development, and physiology of the human reproductive system. This hormone also influences neuroendocrine, skeletal, adipose, and cardiovascular systems. Estrogen is an important sex hormone produced primarily by the ovaries in females and testes in males.
122
What are the phases of the menstrual cycle?
4 phases: menstruation, the follicular phase, ovulation, and the luteal phase.
123
What is the phase of female menstrual cycle that involves the release of an egg?
Ovulation. The process involves: estrogen (hormone), luteinizing hormone (LH), fallopian tube, oocyte.
124
What thickens the uterine lining?
Progesterone thickens the uterine lining. A thick uterine lining helps a fertilized egg grow into a fetus. High progesterone levels prevent the body from ovulating during pregnancy.
125
Infertility is…
the inability to conceive after one year of contraception-free sexual intercourse.
126
How does female infertility occur?
Female Infertility Can occur due to a failure at any stage from oocyte production to embryo implantation. Causes: pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), endometriosis, premature ovarian failure (POF), hormonal imbalances
127
How does male infertility occur?
Male Infertility Can occur due to a reduced number, viability, or motility of sperm in the ejaculate. Causes; infection, hormonal imbalances, autoimmunity to sperm, damage to vas deferens or seminiferous tubules.
128
Diploid Gametes unite by fertilization to produce the haploid zygote. T or F
FALSE
129
Osmoregulation is the process of maintaining salt and water balance (osmotic balance) across membranes within the body. The fluids inside a cell and the fluid surrounding a cell are composed of
water, electrolytes, and nonelectrolytes. An electrolyte is a compound that dissociates into ions when dissolved in water (e.g., NaCl ⤻ Na + , Cl -
130
Additional functions of the kidneys include
blood pressure regulation and the production of erythropoietin, which controls red blood cell production in the bone marrow. Kidneys also regulate the acid-base balance and conserve fluids.
131
The kidney has 3 basic functions which are
**Filtration** fluid in the blood is filtered out of the glomerulus into the tubule system **Reabsorption** selective movement of solutes out of the filtrate back into the blood via peritubular capillaries **Secretion** Movement of substances from the blood into the extracellular fluid, then into the filtrate in the tubular system.
132
Excretion is when
The kidney eliminates harmful substances, nitrogenous waste, and excess K + , Excess H + other ions.
133
The kidneys secrete a number of hormones, which are important for normal functioning of the body. One such hormone is
Renin, which keeps blood pressure normal. If blood pressure falls, renin is secreted by the kidneys to constrict the small blood vessels, thereby increasing blood pressure.
134
Aldosterone (ALD) is a hormone that
helps regulate your blood pressure by managing the levels of sodium (salt) and potassium in your blood and impacting blood volume. Having too much or too little aldosterone in your body can cause health issues.
135
Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP) Opposes the action of aldosterone in promoting salt and water retention. ANP is a cardiac hormone that regulates salt-water balance and blood pressure by
promoting renal sodium and water excretion and stimulating vasodilation. The peptide hormone secreted from the cardiac atria that in humans is encoded by the NPPA gene.
136
Neurons cannot usually regenerate if damaged since most neurons do not retain the ability to divide. Neurons have anatomically and functionally distinct regions for ________, _______, _______.
receiving, integrating, and sending information from one part of the body to another.
137
Signals from photoreceptors are sent through the optic nerve to the brain for processing. The Photopigment in rods is ______. Photopigments of cones are ______, which __________.
rhodopsin & photopsins which absorb light from different regions of the electromagnetic spectrum.
138
Glycogenesis is when
glucagon stimulates liver to break down glycogen to release glucose into blood.
139
Gluconeogenesis is when
The liver converts other molecules into glucose if fasting continues.
140
In intracellular fluid the major cation is ____ and the major anion is ____
potassium, phosphate
