final exam Flashcards
(236 cards)
1
Q
schedules of controlled substances
A
Schedule I
- high chance for potential abuse
- NO ACCEPTABLE MEDICAL USE in the US
- unsafe when used even under medical supervision
Schedule II
- high potential for abuse
- acceptable medical uses in the US
- potential to cause severe psychological or physical dependence if abused
Schedule III
- medium potential for abuse
- acceptable medical uses in the US
- potential to cause moderate or low physical dependence
Schedule IV
- limited potential to cause dependence
Schedule V
- least potential for abuse
- limited potential for dependence
2
Q
mode of action of LSD
A
- it is not well understood
- it is thought to interact with the serotonin system by binding to and activating 5-hydroxytyptamine subtype 2 receptor, which interferes with inhibitory systems resulting in perceptual disturbances
3
Q
Rohyphol
A
trade name for flunitrazepam
- produces sedative-hypnotic, anti-anxiety, and muscle relaxant effects. This drug has never been approved for medical use in the US by the Food and Drug Administration.
- outside the US rohypnol is commonly prescribed to treat insomnia
- also referred to as a ‘date rape drug
- rohypnol is also misused to physically and psychologically incapacitate victims targeted for sexual assault
4
Q
therapeutic uses of depressants and negative side effects
A
sleep, relieve anxiety and muscle spasms, and prevent seizures
- but they also cause amnesia, leaving no memory of events that occur while under the influence, reduce reaction time, impair mental functioning and judgment, and cause condusion
5
Q
oxytocin
A
chemical messenger
- important role in sexual arousal, recognition, trust, romantic attachment, and mother-infant bonding
- called the love hormone or the cuddle chemical
6
Q
surface defects in nanoparticles can expose electron donor/acceptor groups that generate what or what
A
surface defects in nanoparticles can expose electron donor/acceptor groups that generate superoxide anions or hydroxyl radicals
7
Q
steps of opioid mechanism of action
A
- opioid receptors coupled with inhibitory G-proteins
- activation causes- closing of voltage gated calcium channels, stimulation of potassium efflux leading to hyperpolarization and reduced cAMP production
- overall effect- reduction in neuronal cell excitability - reduced transmission of nociceptive impulses
8
Q
biomagnification
A
an increase in concentration from one level to the next due to accumulation of contaminant from food
9
Q
cocaine
A
derived from coca leaves grown in Bolivia, Peru, and Colombia, with Colombia producing the majority of the cocaine powder reaching the US
- usually distributes as a white, crystalline powder and is often diluted with sugars and local anesthetics
- schedule II drug
10
Q
dilution paradigm and boomerang paradigm. which one is valid
A
dilution paradigm is not valid
- dilution is the solution to pollution
boomerang paradigm is accepted
- what you throw away can come back and hurt you
11
Q
persistent organic pollutants, POP, is grouped according to
A
environmental properties
12
Q
why are narcotics prescribed and what are their negative effects
A
may be prescribed to help treat pain, suppress cough, cure diarrhea, and put people to sleep
negative effects include
- slowed physical activity
- constriction of the pupils
- flushing of the face and neck
- constipation
- nausea and vomiting
- slowed breathing
as the dose is increased both the pain relief and he harmful effects become more pronounced
13
Q
cocaine and hydrochloric acid
A
- hydrochloric/sulfuric acid and water dissolve the paste into a workable mixture that allows potassium permanganate to extract unwanted alkaloids. In the US sodium permanganate is highly regulated
- once the solution is filtered, ammonium hydroxide is added to solidify the mixture. The mixture is then dried using powered heating lamps
- cocaine hydrochloride, cocaine HCl is processed- ether or acetone is usually added to end-stage cocaine to further crystallize the drug into cocaine HCl . At this point the production of cocaine, it is no longer pure. Drug dealers then cut the cocaine with a variety of substances to increases their profit
14
Q
heroin
A
- highly addictive and rapidly acting opioid drug. processed from morphine extracted from certain poppy plants
- also known as diacetylmorphine
- effects include surge of euphoria followed by drowsiness, physical dependence, and addiction
- can result in OD, slow and shallow breathing, blue lips and fingernails, possible death
- Schedule I substance- high potential for abuse and no accepted medical use
15
Q
anion gap
A
a measurement of the difference between the negatively charges and positively charged electrolytes
- if the gap is too high or too low it may be a sign of disorder in your lungs, kidneys, or other organ systems
- calculated as the difference between the serum sodium ion conc and the sum of the serum cl- and hco3- ion concentrations
- normal is less than 12
16
Q
the same ionic concentration outside the cell elicits no or modest response because of what
A
selective cell barriers
17
Q
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons PAHs
A
- formed during high temp cooking methods such as frying, roasting, barbecuing, grilling, and smoking over an open flame
- meat grilled directly over an open fire produces significant amounts due to the flames that contain PAHs adhering to the surface of the meat
- linked to various toxic effects in animals, such as hematotoxicity, reproductive and dev. toxicity, immunotoxicity, and carinogenicty, with benzo[a]pyrene being a classified human carcinogen
18
Q
clostridium botulinum
A
- causes the foodborne disease botulism, a form of foodborne intoxication
- grows in anaerobic environment and produces a potent neurotoxin that affects the nervous system
19
Q
stabilization of the patient
A
- airway, breathing, circulation
- assessment, support of ventilation, circulation, and oxygenation
20
Q
primary mechanism of action in barbiturates
A
- the primary mechanism of action of barbiturates in inhibition of the central nervous system. It causes CNS depression
- this is brought about by stimulating the inhibitory neurotransmitter system, the GABA system
21
Q
particle number is important in characterizing exposure and can be measured using what
A
scanning mobility particle sizers or concentration particle counters
22
Q
biomarkers
A
cellular, tissue, body fluid, physiological, or biochemical changes in extant individuals that are used quantitatively during biomonitoring to imply presence of significant pollutants or as early warning systems for imminent effects
23
Q
nanoparticles can be engineered to escape from what using various various coating methods
A
endosomes or lysosomes
24
Q
alkalinization of urine
A
increases poison elimination by administration of iv sodium bicarb to produce a urine with a pH greater than or = to 7.5
- increasing pH of urine increases the degree of ionization of weak acids and reduced passive reabsorption
25
negative effects of THC
Short term effects lead to problems with
- memory and learning
- distorted perception
- difficulty in thinking and problem solving
- loss of coordination
- increased heart rate
Long term effects lead to
- an increase in activation of the stress-response system
- changes in activity of nerve cells containing dopamine, involved in regulation of motivation and reward
Effect on the heart
- risk of heart attack more than quadruple in the first hour after smoking marijuana
26
inter-individual genetic differences exist in taste preference, food tolerance, metabolism, and absorption of food constituents. many of these differences are fixed in a population through what that conferred selective advantage in an environment
many of these differences are fixed in a population through genotypic variations that conferred selective advantage in an environment
27
screening tools research strategy nanotoxicity testing
1. rigorous physiochemical characterization of nanoparticle types and behavior through the life cycle
2. dose-response characterization and careful attention to reliable dosimetry at relevant human exposure levels
3. for in vitro studies, selection of relevant cell types and cell models that reflect the route of human exposure
4. time-course assessments that span acute to chronic exposure durations
5. application of proper benchmark controls to improve interpretation of toxicological outcomes
28
four types of toxic syndromes
sympathomimetic, anticholinergic, cholinergic, opioid
29
who pioneered the field of ecotoxicology
rachel carson
- term first appeared in literature in 1969
30
cocaine mechanism of action
cocaine blocks the dopamine transporter, inhibiting reuptake of dopamine from the synaptic cleft into the pre-synaptic axon terminal; the higher dopamine levels in the synaptic cleft increase dopamine receptor activation in the post-synaptic neuron, causing euphoria and arousal
31
opium and derivatives- mechanisms of action- general overview
- bind to opioid receptors in the central and peripheral nervous system and GI tract
- opioid receptors mediate both psychoactive and somatic effects
- opioid drugs can be partial agonists or antagonists
- some opioid drugs do not cross the blood brain barrier but can displace other opioids from binding those receptors
- Mu, kappa, and delta opioid receptors repersent the originally classified receptor subtypes, with opioid receptor like ORL1 being the least characterized. All four receptors are G-protein coupled and activate inhibitory G proteins
32
clinical features of anticholinergic
blood pressure- slight increase or no change
pulse- increased
temp- increase
pupils- mydriasis
33
toxic substances in food
- naturally occurring toxic substances in food
- naturally occurring toxins in food of marine origin
- microbial contaminants in food
- toxicants generated in food during cooking or processing
34
differences in the ability to produce functional enzymes, transporters, and other proteins that aid in digestion, transport assimilation of nutrients are important determinants of what
personalized nutrition
- polymorphisms and mutations in genes
- lack of ability to utilize nutrients may result in mild-to-sever pathological conditions
35
a number of stimulants have no blank use in the US but have a high what
this makes them what class
no medical use and high potential for abuse
schedule I
36
'emerging' contaminants/pollutants are grouped according to
novelty, timeliness, or new concern
37
fentanyl
- synthetic opioid used for pain relief and anesthesia
- it is 100 times more potent than morphine and 50 times more potent than heroin
- first developed in 1959 and legally manufactured in the US
- comes in various forms including pharmaceutical products and clandestinely produced powder or counterfeit tablets, often sold alone with other drugs
- more recently, there has bee re-emergence of trafficking, distribution, and abuse of illicitly produced fentanyl with an associated dramatic increase in overdose fatalities
- fentanyl schedule II narcotic
38
what nanoscale materials are being introduced into consumer products and why is this problematic
TiO2 in sunscreen creams, antibacterial Ag in textiles, quantum dots in televisions, multiwalled carbon nanotubes in sports equipment, combined with increasing publications reporting toxic responses has led to increasing concerns and more public awareness about potential adverse health effects
39
resistance
a change in the genetic constitution of a population in response to selection by the stressor chemical enables a greater number of individuals to resist the toxic action than were able to resist in the unselected population
40
when the nature of suspected poison is unknown, a systematic standardized approach must be used to identify the potential toxicity, such poison can be categorized as
gas, volatile substance, corrosive agent, metal, anions and nonmetals, nonvolatile organics, miscellaneous
41
glucosinolates
- sulfur-containing goitrogenic glycosides found in cruciferous vegetables
- enzymatic hydrolysis of glucosinolates produces several different products, which contribute to the bitter and hot taste of condiments and are responsible for the toxicity of glucosinolate
- glucosinolate toxicity has been reported in ruminants, poultry, and swine, with symptoms including depressed growth, goiters, enlarged livers, perosis, and poor egg production in chickens
42
nanoparticles tend to form what in the dry state, and in many cases in liquid suspension, which leads to what
tend to form agglomerates in the dry state, and in many cases in liquid suspension, which leads to strong intermolecular attractive forces
43
lactose digestion
- the lactase gene in the intestine produces lactase that digests lactose
- most mammals lose the ability to digest lactose with age due reduced lactase expression
- due to evolution, northern europeans began inheriting a genetic mutation that enabled them to digest milk, and today it is found in up to 95 percent of the population
44
stimulants
- stimulants are diverted from legitimate channels or manufactured clandestinely for the illicit market
- stimulants are abused through smoking through smoking, snorting, or injecting, often in a pattern of binge use that can lead to delirium, psychosis, and physical exhaustion
- stimulants produce a sense of exhilaration, enhance self-esteem, improve mental and physical performance, increase activity, reduce appetite
- the general mechanism of stimulants revolves around increased catecholamine levels and increased agonistic activity at adrenergic receptors
45
the poppy plant, papaver somniferum
the source of opium, harvested by scraping the milky fluid from its unripe seed pod or through the industrial poppy straw process
- all opium and poppy straw used for pharmaceutical products in the US are imported from legitimate sources in regulated countries
46
toxic syndromes/toxidromes
collections of clinical signs that taken together, probably are associated with exposure to certain classes of toxicological agents
- recognition is important because it provides a tool for rapid detection of the suspected cause and can focus the differential diagnosis to consideration of only a few chemicals with similar toxic effects
47
types of food additives
1. stabilizers and thickeners
2. fat replacers
3. masticatory substances
4. firming texturizers
5. appearance control and clarifying agents
6. flour bleaching agents and bread improvers
7. anticaking agents
48
laboratory evaluation
- clinical settings have a limited number of rapid-turnaround detection substances when compared to the number of agents that can poison patients
- importance of recognizing clinical syndromes for poisoning
- toxicologists utilize specific, routinely obtained clinical lab data, specifically the anion gap and the osmol gap
49
how do benzodiazepines produce their effects
enhancing the binding of GABA to its receptor. GABA activates the chloride ion channel, allowing chloride ions to enter the neuron
- the flow of chloride ions into the neuron hyperpolarizes and inhibits the neuron
50
direct additives
intentionally added substances for a specific technical purpose, including impriving safety, freshness, nutritional value, taste, texture, and appearance
51
detect of the toxic effect
- effect on gene expression
- effect on protein synthesis/function
- effect on cell function
52
food and drug administration mission
- ensure the safety of human and veterinary drugs, biological products, and medical devices
- ensure the safety of our food supply, cosmetics, and products that emit radiation
- regulate the manufacturing, marketing, and distribution of tobacco products
- get the accurate, science-based information to maintain and improve health
53
UV-VIS detection
- used with high performance liquid chromatography to detect and identify analytes in the sample. A UV-visible detector uses light to analyze samples. By measuring the sample's absorption of light at different wavelengths, the analyte can be identified
- the more rings a compound has the more UV light it will absorb
54
xenobiotic
a foreign chemical or material not produced in nature and not normally considered a constitutive component of a specified biological system
55
clostridium perfringens
- anaerobic, rod-shaped, and forms spores
- occurs commonly in the environment, especially in those areas contaminated with feces
- also found in the intestines of humans and animals
- third most common cause of foodborne illness in the UK and US
- infections show evidence of tissue necrosis, bacteremia and gas gangrene. The toxin involved in gas gangrene is known as alpha-toxin, which inserts into the plasma membrane of cells, producing gaps in the membrane that disrupt normal cellular fucntion
- action on dead bodies is known to mortuary workers as tissue gas and can be halted only by embalming
- symptoms- intense abdominal cramps, onset 8-22 hours after consumption of incriminated food
- duration- 24 hours, mild symptoms may last for 1 to 2 weeks
56
nanoparticles that activate cell-type-specific signaling pathways can lead to what
cell proliferation or death by various mechanisms
57
orphan drug policy act 1983
- creates incentive for sponsors to develop drugs for rare disease or medical condition
58
genetic adaptations to dietary specializations include
starch digestion, lactose digestion, and alcohol metabolism
59
pyrrolizidine alkaloids, PA
present in many flowering plants
- animals can be exposed to PAs by consuming plants containing PAs
- metabolized in the liver to electrophilic pyrrole derivatives, causing hepatotoxicity in animals and venoocclusive disease in humans
- the FDA has warned against consuming PAs, and herbal supplement manufactureres were asked to remove the herb comfrey from their products due to its PA content
60
to obtain stable dispersions of non-agglomerated nanomaterials, it is typically necessary to add what that prevent particle-particle attachment, or to impart the what on the nanoparticle surfaces that lead to particle-particle repulsion
to obtain stable dispersions of non-agglomerated nanomaterials, it is typically necessary to add macromolecular coatings that prevent particle-particle attachment, or to impart an electrical charge on the nanoparticle surfaces that lead to particle-particle repulsion
61
tolerance
an adaptational state when, after repeated exposure, a given dose of an agent produces a decreased effect or, conversely, when increasingly larger doses are necessary to obtain the effects observed within the original dose
62
biomonitoring
the use of organisms to monitor contamination and to imply possible effects to biota or sources of toxicants to humans
63
brain and nanotoxicology
- blood circulation is not efficient for CNS translocation due to the tight blood-brain barrier
- uptake into the lymphatic system can feed back into the blood circulation
- perineural translocation along the olfactory nerve can deliver nanoparticles into the cerebrospinal fluid
- the most efficient pathway of nanoparticle translocation to the CNS is via olfactory sensory neurons from the nasal olfactory mucosa directly to the olfactory bulb
- exposure to traffic-related particles has been associated with impaired cognitive function and neurodivergent brain pathology in epi studies
64
analytical chemistry
studies and uses instruments and methods used to separate, identify, and quantify matter
65
pollutants of interest in ecotoxicology
- POPs
- EDCs
- PPCPs
- oil spills
66
hallucinogens
- hallucinogens are found in plants and fungi or are synthetically produced and are among the oldest known group of drugs used for their ability to alter human perception and mood
- sensory effects perceptual distortions. Psychic effects include distortions of thought associated with time and space. weeks or even months after some hallucinogens have been taken, the user may experience flashbacks. The occurrence of flashback is unpredictable
67
naturally occurring toxic substances in food
- plants produce secondary metabolites to protect themselves from invaders. They are not essential for growth and reproduction
- some secondary metabolites may have beneficial health effects on humans in low or moderate amounts
- many secondary metabolites are toxic to animals and humans, especially in high levels
68
in estimating the level of exposure to a poison one generally should what the estimate of the possible dose received
maximize
69
PCR
- the polymerase chain reaction is a process for the amplification of specific fragments of DNA
- real-time PCR a specialized reaction that allows a PCR to be visualized in real time as the reaction progresses
70
pentobarbital
short-acting barbiturate typically used as a sedative, a preanesthetic, and to control convulsions in emergencies. It is used for Vet euthanasia and is used by some U.S. states for executions of convicted criminals by lethal injection
71
adrenaline
epinephrine
- fight or flight response
- increases hr, bp, expands air passage in lungs, enlarges pupils, decreases sensitivity to pain, improves vision hearing and other senses, slows digestion, redistributes blood to the muscles
72
biomarkers of exposure
used to assess the amount of chemical that is present within the body
- chemical, metabolite, endogenous surrogate
73
MTPT, 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine
- contaminant associated chemistry students home synthesis of MPPP, synthetic heroin, a potent analog of meperidin or demerol
- link to parkinsons disease- within hours to days after usage, patients develop symptoms of irreversible parkinson's disease
- rhesus monkey- 1st development of a parkinsons disease model in animals
74
benzodiazepines
- depressants that produce sedation, hypnosis, relieve anxiety, muscle spasms, and reduce seizures
- only legally available through prescription
75
with an estimate of dose a toxicologist can refer to various information sources to determine what the blank from the exposure may be
range of expected clinical effects
76
salomellosis
- ranked among the most frequent types of foodborne illness in the US
- 2 to 4 million cases estimated to occur each year in the US
- causes about 500 deaths each year
- Symptoms include- nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, diarrhea, fever, headache, may include arthritic-like symptoms that occur 3-4 weeks after an acute infection
77
acrylamide
produced by cooking starchy foods at high temperatures through a chemical reaction between certain sugars and asparagine
- neurotoxin and classified as probably carcinogenic to humans
- french fries, potato chips, coffee, pastries, cookies, and bread are primary sources of acrylamide, with varying levels of content
78
medicine
any drug used to cure, prevent, or treat illness or discomfort
79
nanotechnology- dosimetry
- surface area of nanoparticles is the most informative dosimetry for dose-response relationships
- identifying the biologically relevant surface area is important due to various surface properties that affect interaction with cells
- particle volume has been suggested as another dosimetry for assessing the physiological clearance function
80
seafood toxicity
cause by algal or bacterial toxins that accumulate in shellfish and fish, or by the production of histamine by spoilage bacteria in fish
- these toxins are heat stable and remain unaffected by cooking and there are no known antidotes for them
- toxins act on sodium channels, blocking or opening them, causing muscle paralysis, involuntary muscle spasms. tingling paresthesia, and other symptoms
- seafood contaminated with these toxins will still look, smell, and taste normal
- can be lethal in small doses
81
mechanism of amphetamine
- exerts its rewarding and reinforcing effects by elevating extracellular dopamine and prolonging DA receptor signaling
Major mechanisms
1. It is a substrate for the DA transporter DAT that competitively inhibits DA uptake
2. It facilitates the movement of DA out of vesicles and into the cytoplasm
82
nanomaterials may also impact the what and what of other contaminants in the environment
bioavailability and toxicity
83
behavioral changes from caffeine
- stimulant
Enhanced
- alertness and wakefulness
- endurance
- productivity and motivation
- increased arousal and locomotion
Decreased
- perception of hunger and fatigue
84
dopamine
plays a role in many important body functions including movement, memory, and pleasurable reward and motivation
85
alcohol metabolism
- ADH1B47His allele, causes enhanced catalytic activity of alcohol dehydrogenase, resulting in an increased metabolism of ethanol, and increased levels of acetalaldehyde
- ALDH deficiency, which is common among east asians, with an increased catalytic activity of ADH results in an increased blood level of acetaldehyde. this causes flushing, intolerance, and discomfort associated with alcohol dirnking
- it is proposed to be an adaptation to rice domestication and the consumption of fermented food and/or beverages
86
norovirus
- most common cause of viral gastroenteritis in humans. common cause of stomach flu for adults; stomach flu in children in mostly caused by rotavirus
- transmitted by fecally contaminated food or water, by person-to-person contact, via aerosolization of vomited virus
- transmitted easily within closed environments
87
stimulant chemicals in over the counter products such as what and what can be found in allergy and cold medicine
ephedrine and pseudoephedrine. they must be stored behind the counter or in a locked cabinet
88
where is mucosal-associate lymphoid tissue located and what does it do
a layer away from the GI tract's antigens and determines whether an antigen is tolerated or triggers an immune response
89
exposure is what
the magnitude, duration and frequency with which an organism interacts with biologically available toxicants or toxins
90
Zinc oxide ZnO NPs in sunscreens absorb UV light but release what into the water causing acute toxicity
Zn2+
91
EDCs- endocrine disruptor compounds
- defined as any xenobiotic compound that is able to alter the normal functioning of endocrine system and, as a consequence, to cause adverse effects on the health of an organism and/or its progeny
- in humans, this disruption can cause cancerous tumors, birth defects, and other developmental disorders
92
neurotransmitters
chemical messengers that carry chemical signals from one neuron to the next target cell, which could be another nerve cell, muscle cell, or gland
93
lignans
main phytoestrogens in a normal diet and are found in many cereals, fruits, and vegetables
- some animal models suggest that phytoestrogens can produce symptoms of endocrine disruption, but human studies are inconclusive
- epidemiological studies suggest that high intake of soy isoflavones is associated with reduced breast cancer risk in pre- and postmenopausal women and is seemingly safe for women with a history of breast cancer
94
glutamate
amino acid common in the diet; excitatory neurotransmitter, present in 90 percent of synapses, main excitatory NT in the CNS
95
FDA standards
- authority to collect user fees from industry to fund reviews of innovative drugs, medical devices, generic drugs and biosimilar biological products
- promoting innovation to speed patient access to safe and effective products
- increasing stakeholder involvement in FDA processes
- enhancing the safety of the drug supply chain
96
high blank and blank and exposed what increase the dissolution and release the ions from metallic or metal oxide NPs in fluids
high surface area, high surface curvature, and exposed surface atoms/molecules
97
rachel carson
- marine biologist from pennsylvania
- author of silent spring
- worried about the widespread and indiscriminate use of pesticides known to affect wildlife
- strong lobbiest for controlling and banning certain highly toxic chemicals
- testified before congress in 1963 and called for new policies with respect to human health and the environment
98
oxidative stress
oxidative stress due to direct generation of ROS at the surface of NPs or indirectly by target cells following internalization of NPs is common
99
top 6 oil spills
1. Arabian Gulf, 1991, 252-336 million gallons spilled
2. Gulf oil spill, 2010, 206 million gallons spilled
3. Ixtoc 1 oil spill, 1979, 140 million gallons spilled
4. atlantic empress oil spill, 1979, 90 million gallons spilled
5. kolva river oil spill, 1983, 84 million gallons spilled
6. nowruz oil field spill, 1983, 80 million gallons spilled
100
domoic acid
causes amnesic shellfish poisoning and is produced by marine diatoms and red algae during severe algal blooms
- symptoms of ASP include vomiting, nausea, diarrhea, and abdominal cramps. Neurological symptoms develop within 48 hours
- specifically targets the hippocampus, causing permanent loss of short-term memory in susceptible individuals
- FDA recommends that the limit of DA in shellfish meat should not exceed 20 ppm except in the viscera of dungeness crab, where it should not exceed 30 ppm
101
evidence of EDC effects in wildlife
- intersex in fish - sewage treatment plant in proximity
- secondary sexual characters alteration in fish- close proximity to paper pulp mill
- imposex in moluscs - TBT exposure in coastal areas
102
starch digestion
- the alpha-amylase, AMY1, gene encodes salivary alpha-amylase that helps digest starch. Salivary amylase can persist in the stomach and intestine after swallowing
- people with more copies of the AMY1 gene and corresponding higher concentrations of the amylase enzyme in their saliva, were found to digest starchy carbohydrates faster
103
fluorescence detection
- light energy absorbed by a molecule raises electron to excited state and then the electron falls to a ground state and emits a light- fluorescence
- less common than UV absorbance, for a given molecule both the excitation and emission wavelengths are specific, fluorescence detectors can be very selective
104
predictive toxicology
- physicochemical properties of ENMs and selection of appropriate target cells are important for hazard ID
- biokinetics info is important for identifying potential secondary target organs
- real-world exposure scenarios are essential for exposure-dose-response relationships
- mechanistic information discovered through in vitro assays can aid in hazard characterization
- animal studies are still necessary for obtaining information about long-term effects and risk assessment
105
subjective and behavioral effects of marijuana
- buzz- lightheadedness, dizziness
- high- euphoria, disinhibition, increased laughter
- stoned- calm, relaxed, within a dreamlike state
- come-down- paranoid, depressed, tired, irritable
106
toxicity is a function of what
toxicity is a function of exposure
107
persistent organic pollutants
- POPs
- synthetic organic chemicals
- long-range transport leads to global pollution
- lipophilic
- accumulate in food chain due to their lipophilicity
- acute toxicity is well characterized
108
what influences environmental nanoparticle uptake into cells
surface charge, reactivity, chemistry of coatings, and defects
109
analytical science
seeks the improving means of measuring the chemical composition, structure and morphology of natural and man made substances or entities combined with the interpretation of the data obtained
110
dysregulated intracellular calcium ion homeostasis can be caused by nanoparticle interaction with what or release from what
dysregulated intracellular calcium ion homeostasis can be caused by nanoparticle interaction with plasma membrane or release from intracellular storage, leading to cell death by necrosis
111
mydriasis vs miosis
mydriasis is dialated pupils, miosis is constricted pupils
112
radiographic evaluation
- relatively limited tool for poisonings and drug overdose
- exception meds with ferrous or potassium salts, certain sustained release drugs, or coated medications
- most useful radiographs- chest, abdomen, head ct
- good technique for body packers
113
protein detection- uses of antibodies in molecular biology
- western blotting- immunoblotting, identification of protein antigen following SDS-PAGE
- immunoprecipitation- isolation of specific proteins and binding partners
- immunofluorescence microscopy- localization of specific proteins in cells
- ELISA- enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay- detection of proteins in a sample
114
ecotoxicology
the study of the effects of xenobiotics on biological organisms, especially at the population, community and ecosystem level
- integrates the effects of stressors across all levels of biological organization from the molecular to whole communities and ecosystems, and environmental toxicology focuses upon effects at the level of the individual and below
115
contaminant
a substance released by human activities
116
PCBs- polychlorinated biphenyls
- two common uses before being banned- insulating fluid in transformers and capacitors, lubricant
- PCBs present in the environment tend to bioaccumulate in fish and other animals used for food and, in turn, impact human health
- no longer manufactured in the US
117
furan
- present in canned and jarred foods that undergo heat treatment
- it is considered possibly carcinogenic to humans and is hepatotoxic
- produced when sugars, amino acids, or proteins are heated, and has been found in a variety, but little info is available on its levels in food
118
amphetamines
- amphetamines are legal stimulants used to treat ADHD
- first marketed in the 1930s as an over-the-counter inhaler for nasal congestion
- common prescription amphetamines include methylphenidate, amphetamine and dextroamphetamine, and dextroamphetamine
- ice is smokable methamphetamine
119
3 things to consider as top priorities in supportive care of poisoned patients
- delayed toxicity- treatment actions
- multiple phases of toxicity- many elicit a very different response than ways clinically observed at onset
- psychiatric assessment- typically done prior to discharge
120
analytical toxicology
the detection, identification, and measurement of foreign compounds in biological and other specimens
121
how is prevention of further toxic absorption determined
determined by the route of exposure
- inhalation- remove persons from the environment, provide O2
- dermal/topical- removal of contaminated articles of clothing and washing of the affected area
- oral- induction of emesis with syrup or ipecac, gastric lavage, oral administration of activated charcoal
- important to note that these actions are determined by the poison
122
What is nanontechnology
the understanding and control of matter at nanoscale dimensions between approximately 1 and 100 nm
123
behavior of nanoparticles vs larger particles
biological systems do not perceive a precise boundary at the 100 nm size threshold, but rather a gradual transition between nanoparticles and larger-sized particles
124
lectins
- glycoproteins that agglutinate cells, including erythrocytes
- they are present in both plants and animals and are highly concentrated in legumes and grain products
- selectively bind carbohydrates and can interfere with nutrient absorption and cause acute GI tract distress if improperly cooked or consumed in high amounts
- highly toxic lectins such as ricin and abrin are found in certain plants and can cause death
125
the four nutrient-based reference values according to the dietary reference intakes, DRIs
estimated average requirement
recommended dietary allowances
adequate intake
tolerable upper intake level
126
salmonella
- infection called salmonellosis
- the bacteria are rod-shaped, motile, gram-negative, non-sporeforming
- the most common serotypes in US are enteritidis and typherimurium
127
most abundant cannabinoids
THC, THCV, cannabinol CBN, cannabidiol CBD
128
in water, what two forces drive the agglomeration of many nanoparticle types
van der waals forces and hydrophobic forces
129
caffeine mechanisms of action
- antagonism of adenosine receptors; when it get metabolized it is demethylated
- inhibition of phosphodiesterase
- release of calcium from intracellular stores; excitatory
- antagonism of benzodiazepine receptors; blocks the receptors
- caffeine induces fat oxidation so it could essentially help you lose weight
- important for muscle contraction due to caffeine
130
tetrodotoxin
- produced by symbiotic bacteria found in various marine organisms, including puffer fish
- it is a potent sodium channel blocker that causes muscle paralysis and other symptoms, which include perioral paresthesia, vomiting, light headedness, and dizziness
- puffer fish is a delicacy in japan
131
amphetamines and adhd
act to boost norepinephrine and dopamine neurotransmission in the prefrontal cortex
132
clinical features of sympathomimetic
blood pressure- increased
pulse- increased
temp- slight increase
pupils- mydriasis
133
marijuana
- from cannabis sativa
Marijuana- dried leaves, stems, flowering tops
- consumption commonly in rolled cigarettes and orally
- potency varies with strain and growing conditions
Hashish- relatively pure resin or leaf extracts
- consumption smoked or eaten
- potency depends on preparation
- hash oil- alcoholic extract, highly potent
Complex alkaloid mixture of more than 400 compounds derived from the plant
- 60 different compounds described with activity on the cannabinergic system
134
carbon nanomaterials can do what to the plasma membrane
carbon nanomaterials can can create holes in the plasma membrane resulting in extracellular release of cytoplasmic contents
135
7 major neurotransmitters
1. glutamate
2.GABA
3. dopamine
4. adrenaline
5. serotonin
6. oxytocin
7. acetylcholine
136
effect on gene expression
- polymerase chain reaction [qPCR]
137
the respiratory, gastrointestinal, and skin routes are the main organs of direct exposure to environmental nanoparticles- explain how for each one
- respiratory intake is the most prevalent route for occupational exposures
- additives of environmental nanoparticles to food and potential contamination of food from nanoenabled packaging materials result in exposure via the GI tract
- skin exposure via cosmetics and skin care products occurs, although penetration of healthy skin by NPs has not been demonstrated
138
stages of drug addiction
1. Drug use- activates the brain reward system
2. Tolerance- need more of the drug to produce the same effect
3. dependence- experiences uncomfortable withdrawal symptoms if the person tries to discontinue drug use
4 .addiction- lost control of the drug taking habit
139
prions
- cause of bovine spongiform encephalopathy
- BSE is progressive, ultimately fatal, and is potentially transmissible among cattle
- the infectious agent is a protein
- causes several diseases in the brain
- the only infectious agent that dont contain genetic material
- normal form play important role in brain function such as helping nerve cells communicate. abnormal prions destroy the brain
- human variant is called Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease
140
endocrine disrupting chemicals, EDC, are grouped according to
toxicological mode of action or endpoint
141
depressants
- depressants have sedative effects, relieve anxiety and muscle spasms, and prevent seizures
- barbiturates, can cause rapid dependence and tolerance, leading to coma or death
- benzodiazepines- developed to replace barbiturates but still have similar side effects
- most CNS depressants act on the brain by increasing activity of gamma-aminobutyric acid GABA, a chemical that inhibits brain activity. This action causes the drowsy and calming effects that make the medicine effective for anxiety and sleep disorder
142
the dissolution of metal oxides and metal nanomaterials is affected by what
the characteristics of the media such as pH and salt content
143
PPCPs are grouped according to
type of intended usage
144
indirect additives
materials that may migrate from food contact surfaces during production, processing, packaging, or transportation
- indirect and some secondary direct additives are now referred to as food contact substances
145
what affects the deposition efficiency of inhaled materials in the respiratory tract
shape, size, and size distribution of the nanoparticle
146
categories of POPs
Pesticides
- aldrin, dieldrin, chlordane, DDT, endrin, heptachlor, mirex, toxaphene
Industrial chemicals
- PCBs
- HCB
Unintended byproducts
- dibenzodioxins, dibenofurans
147
...omics
all constituents considered collectively
- in english neologism omics informally refers to a field of study in biology ending in -omics
- aims at the collective characterization and quantification of pools of biological molecules that translate into the structure, function, and dynamics of an organism/s
- if we don't know what a protein does the omics are useless
148
food toxicology
involves detecting toxic substances in food, studying their properties, and investigating their adverse health effects
149
is there an instrument that can measure toxicity
no, only living material can be used to measure toxicity
150
what is nanotoxicology
the study of adverse effects of nanomaterials on living organisms and the environment
- the respiratory tract is the major route for humans to exposure of nanomaterials
151
phytoestrogens
bind to estrogen receptors and stimulate receptor activity
152
properties of environmental nanoparticles can change during preparation, storage, or testing, posing a challenge for what
nanotoxicological studies
153
ecstasy/MDMA
3,4-methylenedioxy-methamphetamine is a synthetic drug that alters mood and perception
- MDMA was initially popular in the nightclub scene and raves, also called ecstasy or molly
- schedule I drug under the controlled substances act
- in a mild dose, ecstasy causes increase in the release of dopamine and norepi
- in higher doses MDMA acts as a serotonin agonists causing an increase in serotonin release and blocking its uptake. This activity is responsible for the hallucinations produced by MDMA
154
in vitro mechanisms of nanoparticle toxicity
1. damage to cell wall and plasma membrane
2. interference with electron transport and aerobic respiration
3. induction of oxidant stress
4. activation of cell signaling pathways
5. perturbed ion homeostasis
6. release of toxic metal ions from internalized nanoparticles
7. disruption of lysosomal membrane integrity
8. incomplete uptake or frustrated phagocytosis
9. interference with cytoskeletal function
10. DNA and chromosomal damage
155
drug
any substance that causes a change in a person's physical or psychological state
156
detection of toxic agent
- separation of toxic compound
- detection and ID of toxic compound
157
what are surface properties
major determinants of biological reactivity due to high surface area, surface charge, dissolution and release of metal ions, and redox activity leading to generation of reactive oxygen species
158
classes of environmental nanomaterials
- simple isometric forms
- one dimensional forms
- two dimensional forms
- nanomaterials are often integrated into complex, active structures for chemical or biological sensors or other devices
159
issues and concerns in ecotoxicology assays
- nanomaterials may aggregate substantially when introduced into common exposure media, and changing the surface chemistry of nanomaterial can change its toxicity
- many coatings can cause toxicity on their own regardless of whether it is attached to the nanomaterial, which can dramatically change the properties of the nanomaterial through the experiment
- determining the dose an organism requires verifying how much of any nanomaterial actually reaches the organism and is taken up into the organism and its tissues
- real adverse impacts may not be due to ambient environmental concentrations but may be due to some subset of materials that are persistent and biomagnify in the environment
- toxicity varies with the type of nanomaterial and is not universal across materials, and most nanomaterials that are needed to kill are in the mg/L range, which is far above the estimates of potential exposures to any nanomaterials
- silver nanomaterials are some of the most widely used materials and appear to demonstrate the greatest toxicity of materials investigated in the literature
160
escherichia coli; e. coli
- produce a toxin called shiga-like toxin
- characteristic symptom- hemolytic uremic syndrome HUS
- HUS is a condition resulting from the abnormal premature destruction of red blood cells induced by shiga toxin
- pathogenic strain, many strains are nonpathogenic
- causes bloody diarrhea
- 73,000 cases and 61 deaths annually in the US
- major outbreaks in restaurant chains
161
morphine
- non-synthetic narcotic derived from opium with high potential for abuse and used for pain treatment
- chronic use results in physical and psychological dependence
- Schedule II narcotic
162
carbon nanotubes
- have desirable properties for beneficial applications but also reports of serious adverse effects in experimental animals
- have potential in biomedical applications but reports of inflammatory, fibrogenic, and mesotheliogenic effects in lab rodents dampen their use
Concerns
- in vitro studies commonly use high doses/concentrations that may not be relevant in vivo
- In vitro assays can be misleading due to interference of nanomaterials with testing reagents, adsorption of induced mediators, or interference with optical measurements
163
drugs of abuse
- drugs that people take for mind-altering effects that no medical purpose
- they are psychoactive a drug or medicine that affects the brain and changes how a person perceives, thinks, or feels
164
five classes of drugs regulated by the controlled substances act
narcotics
depressants
stimulants
hallucinogens
anabolic steroids
165
separation of toxic compound
filtration, evaporation, distillation, chromatography
166
glycoalkaloids
a-solanine and a-chaconine are steroidal glycoalkaloids present in potatoes
- the concentrations increase in potato peel due to exposure light, mechanical damage, and improper storage conditions
- content of glycoalkoids is not affected much by normal cooking methods but is significantly reduced by peeling
- act as inhibitors of acetylcholinesterase and disruptors of cell membranes, resulting in adverse effects on the nervous system and cell membrane disruption
167
chromatography
- invented by mikahil tswett while doing his research on plant pigments
- separation technique based on the different interactions of compounds with two phases, a mobile phase and a stationary phase, as the compounds travel through a supporting medium
168
bioaccumulation
the net accumulation of a contaminant in and on an organism from all sources including water, air, and solid phases of the environment. solid phase includes food
- results in organisms having a higher concentration of the substance than the concentration surrounding the environment
- general rule- the more hydrophobic a substance is the more likely it is to bioaccumulate in organisms
169
MDMA increases the activity of three brain chemicals
- dopamine produced increased energy/activity and acts in the reward system to reinforce behaviors
- norepinehprine increases heart rate and blood pressure, which are particularly risky for people with heart and blood vessel problems
- serotonin affects mood, appetite, sleep, and other functions. It also triggers hormones that affect sexual arousal and trust. The release of large amounts of serotonin likely causes the emotional closeness, elevated mood, and empathy felt by those who use MDMA
170
drug safety
- pharmacovigilance is the pharmacological science relating to the collection, detection, assessment, monitoring, and prevention of adverse effects with pharmaceutical products
- responsible for- patient care, public health, risk-benefit assessments, and communication
171
intensity of cocaine's effects depends on what
how quickly the drug reaches the brain
- following smoking or IV injection, cocaine reaches the brain in seconds, with a rapid buildup in levels. This results in a rapid-onset, intense euphoric effect known as the rush
- the euphoria is caused by snorting cocaine is less intense and does not happen as quickly due to the slower build-up of the drug in the brain
- tolerance to cocaine's effects develops rapidly, causing users to take higher and higher doses. Taking high doses of cocaine or prolonged use. The crash that follows euphoria is characterized by mental and physical exhaustion, sleep, and depression, lasting several days
172
phenobarbital
schedule IV drug, and it is used for its sedative and anti-seizure properties. It is known for being highly addictive and, in prior years, found to be a common agent of choice for suicide attempts
173
tolerance vs. resistance
tolerance usually in an individual over shorter time periods whereas resistance occurs over much longer periods and includes inheritance and gene selection by subsequent generations
174
whenever possible a clinical toxicologist categorizes the patients physical examination parameters into broad classes referred to as what
toxic syndromes
aka toxidrome
175
charged NPs with what increase their aqueous suspension, while what nanomaterials like fullerenes or graphene repel water and can enter target cells
charged NPs with surface hydrophilicity increase their aqueous suspension, while hydrophobic nanomaterials like fullerenes or graphene repel water and can enter target cells
176
food habits can also drive nutritional what
nutritional adaptation
177
pollutant
a substance that occurs in the environment at least in part as a result of man's activities, and which has a deleterious effect on living organims
178
biomarkers of effect
indicators of a change in biologic function in response to a chemical exposure
- bioindicator, undetermined consequence, exogenous surrogate
179
PPCPs- pharmaceuticals and personal care prodcuts
includes a wide range of medicines, illicit drugs, and byproducts from everyday items
most commonly found in municipal waste
- antibiotics
- antidepressants
- birth control pills
- hormone replacement therapy drugs
- painkillers
- caffeine
180
nanoparticles particles can do what leading to internalization by various mechanisms
nanoparticles can target specific cell surface receptors leading to internalization by various mechanisms
181
what are initial barriers to nanoparticle penetration into target cells
bacterial cell walls and eukaryotic plasmas membranes are initial barriers
182
tolerable upper intake level
the highest level of daily nutrient intake that is unlikely to pose any risk of adverse health effects
183
clinical features of opioid
blood pressure- decrease
pulse- decrease
temp- decrease
pupils- miosis
184
alcohol behavioral changes
depressant
- anxiety reduction
- pain relief
- sedation
- cognitive/memory impairment
- euphoria
- dissociation
- physiological changes
185
components of chromatography
- mobile phase- a solvent that flows through the supporting medium
- stationary phase- a layer or coating on the supporting medium that interacts with the analytes
- supporting medium- a solid surface on which the stationary phase is bound or coated
186
what is the immune system of the gut called
gut-associated lymphoid tissue
187
LSD
lysergic acid diethylamide, commonly known as LSD; effects typically include intensified thoughts, emotions, and sensory perception
- at sufficiently high dosages LSD manifests primarily mental, visual, as well as auditory, hallucination. Dilated pupils, increased blood pressure, and increased body temperature are typical
- effects typically begin within half an hour and can last for up to 20 hours
- Schedule I substance
188
biomarkers of susceptibility
factors that may make certain individuals more sensitive to chemical exposure
- genetic and biological factors
189
main types of medication and what they do
Antibiotic- kills bacteria to help cure infections
Stimulant- increases alertness; helps people with ADHD focus
Anti-anxiety- helps people who are excessively nervous or panicked to calm down
Vaccine- prevents infections in people exposed to the infectious agent
Sedative- causes sleepiness
190
food safety
- scientific discipline describing handling, preparation, and storage of food in ways that prevent foodborne illness and, by extension, avoid potential health hazards
- responsible for interactive communication, system management, pre-requisite programs, hazard analysis
191
narcotics
- comes from greek word stupor and originally referred to substances that dulled senses and relieved pain
- refers to opium, opium derivatives, and their semi-synthetic substitutes also known as opioids
192
enhancement of poison elimination
- alkalinization of urine
- hemodialysis
- hemoperfusion
- hemofiltration
- plasma exchange
- plasma transfusion
- serial oral activated charcoal administration
193
ciguatoxin group of toxins
- ciguatera toxin, gambiertoxin, and maitotoxin found in marine fishes
- ciguatoxins are produced by the dinoflagellate gambierdiscus toxicus and cause ciguatera fish poisoning, CFP
- CFP is associated with the consumption of large predatory fishes that have accumulated ciguatoxins by feeding on contaminated smaller fishes
- symptoms of CFP include GI, neuro, and cardio effects an can last for months, with deaths reported in severe cases
194
metabolism of THC
- the dried flowering tops and leaves contains up to 5 percent of THC
- the resin itself combined with the flowers
- endogenous agonists are ananadamide and 2-AG, which are made on demand and then hydrolyzed by an enzyme know as FAAH, fatty acid amide hydrolase
195
hepatitis A
- foods that are associated commonly with HAV outbreaks include fruits, sandwiches made with cold cuts, dairy products, vegetables, and shellfish
- common mode for contamination of foods is by HAV-infected workers in food processing plants and restaurants
- around 7 percent of cases in the US are believe to be food or wateborne
196
some environmental nanoparticles are insoluble and can undergo chemical oxidation to produce what
cytotoxic soluble species
197
therapeutical uses of THC
Cancer/AIDS treatment
- ability to increase appetite and decrease nausea
- possible tumor reduction
Glaucoma
- decreases pressure in the eye since it decrease blood pressure
Multiple Sclerosis
- can relieve spasms
Tourette syndrome
- can reduce nervous tics and urges using synthetic THC
Alzheimers disease
- inihibition of plaque formation using high in vitro concentrations of THC
MS, Parkinsons, and Alzheimer's
- activation of CB1 receptors may facilitate neurogeneration and neuroprotection
198
GABA
y-aminobutyric acid
- chief inhibitory NT in mammalian CNS. reduces neuronal excitability throughout the nervous system
199
5 most prescribed benzos and most frequently found on the couch
alprazolam, clonazepam, chlordiazepoxide, diazepam, lorazepam, temazepam, triazolam
200
how does chromatography work
- sample is transported in a mobile phase
- the mobile phase is forced through a stationary phase held in a column or on surface. The stationary phase needs to be something that does not interact with the mobile phase or the sample
- the sample has the opportunity to interact with the stationary phase as it moves past
- samples that have greater interactions move slower
201
priority pollutants are grouped according to
legislation
202
clinical history of poisoned patient- primary goal of taking medical history
Primary goal of taking medical history
- determine the substance ingested
- substance to which the patient has been exposed
- extent and time of exposure
203
secondary direct additives
added during processing but are usually removed before consumption
204
action potential
a rapid sequence of changes in the voltage across a membrane. The membrane voltage is determined at any time by the relative ratio of ions, extracellular to intracellular, and the permeability of each ion
205
alcohol mechanisms of action
- agonist at inhibitory synapses- enhancing the effect of GABA, an inhibitory NT, on its receptors
- antagonist as excitatory synapses- inhibits the actions of glutamate on the NMDA receptors, resulting in an incautious and dull state of mind
206
saxitoxin
- marine toxin produced by dinoflagellate species and causes paralytic shellfish poisoning, PSP, when consumed by humans
- PSP includes headache, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea, and can lead to respiratory arrest in fatal cases
- to avoid exceeding the ARfD, the limit of saxitoxin equivalents in shellfish meat should not exceed 75 micrograms/kg for a 60 kg adult
- the FDA recommends a limit of 0.8ppm saxitoxin equivalents
207
detection of specific proteins- SDS-PAGE and western blot
1. separate proteins by SDS PAGE
2. transfer proteins to membranes
3. block non-specific sites on membrane
4. incubate with primary antibody, wash
5. incubate with secondary antibody, wash
6. detect secondary antibody
208
opium
- can be abused by smoking, IV injection, or pill form, can also be combined with other drugs
- produces a euphoric rush, followed by relaxation and relief of physical pain, can lead to physical and psychological dependence, constipation, and overdose
- similar drugs that produce similar effects include morphine, codeine, heroin, methadone, hydroquinone, fentanyl, and oxycodone
- schedule II drug
209
acetylcholine
NT at neuromuscular junctions, at synapses in the ganglia of the visceral motor system, and at a variety of sites within the CNS.
- plays a role in memory, learning, and neuroplasticity
- helps engage sensory functions upon waking, helps people sustain focus, and acts as part of the brains reward system
210
why do drugs cause such varied and specific effects
different drugs target different
- brain regions
- neural pathways
- neuron types
- neurotransmitter receptors
211
environmental uses and exposures to nanomaterials
- nanomaterials used in industry and consumer products can enter the environment during their lifecycle
- identified uses of nanomaterials are in cosmetics, clothing, personal care products, and sporting goods
- silver and carbon nanomaterials are the most common nanomaterials used in these products
- other chemicals used in personal care products, cosmetics, and clothing have been found in the aquatic environment through wastewater treatment plants
212
nanotoxicity testing
- in vitro studies are commonly used for ENM toxicity research
- dose received by cells is influenced by colloidal dynamics or particokinetics in the culture medium
- another in vitro method is air-liquid interface system
- precision-cut rat lung slices and acellular human three-dimensional lung scaffolds are additional exposure models for inhalation nanotoxicology
- non-animal epithelial barrier models are being developed for evaluation of lung, intestinal, and skin toxicity as static or microfluidic platforms
213
primary pharmacologic effect of amphetamines
increase central dopamine and norepinephrine activity, which impacts executive and attentional function
214
botulisim
- onset of symptoms in foodborne botulism is usually 18-36 hours after ingestion of food
- early signs- marked lassitude, weakness and vertigo, double vision, progressive difficulty in speaking and swallowing, difficulty breathing, abdominal distension, constipation
- botulinum toxin, BTX, prevents the release of AChE from axon endings at the neuromuscular junction and thus cases flaccid paralysis
- most acutely lethal toxin known with human lethal dose of 1.3-2.1 ng/kg intavenously
- used commercially in medicine, cosmetics, and research
215
DDT- dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane
- widespread use of DDT began during early 1940s and reached a maximum during the 1960s
- dur to concerns about the possible adverse effects upon the health of humans and wildlife, application of DDT was prohibited in 1972 in the US
- most developed nations banned the use of DDT; however, some countries still continue to use DDT
216
clinical strategy for treatment of poisoned patient
1. stabilization
2. clinical evaluation
3. prevention of further toxic absorption
4. enhancement of toxic elimination
5. administration of antidote
6. supportive care and clinical follow up
217
what is the addictive character of opium related to
- the binding of the u-opioid receptors, which activate dopaminergic neurons in the ventral tegmental area of the midbrain, and thus enhance the dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens. This mechanism involves the reward activity of the mesolimbic dopaminergic pathway
218
barbiturates
- pentobarbital and phenobarbital are depressants that produce a wide spectrum of central nervous system depression from mild sedation to coma. They also have been used as sedatives, hypnotics, anesthetics,, and anticonvulsants
- first introduced for medical use in the 1900s
- generally abused to reduce anxiety, decrease inhibitions, and treat unwanted effects of illicit drugs. Barbiturates can be extremely dangerous because overdoses can occur easily and lead to death
- cause mild euphoria, lack of inhibition, relief of anxiety, and sleepiness
- tolerance develops quickly and larger doses are then needed produce the same effect, increasing the danger of an overdose
- schedule II, III, and IV depressants
219
purpose of the physical examination
- characterize the patients condition, categorize mental status, determine possible additional causes
220
environmental toxicology
examines how environmental exposures to chemical pollutants may present risks to biological organisms, particularly humans, animals, birds, and fish
- new discipline that grew out of studies on the environmental fate and transport of pesticides in the 1940s and 1950s
221
the ergot fungus
contains a number of highly poisonous and psychoactive alkaloids, including LSD, which was synthesized from the ergot fungus in 1938
222
stroop effect
- caused by alcohol
- delay in reaction time between congruent and incongruent stimuli
223
metal oxide nanomaterials generate more/less oxidative stress and are more/less toxic than their bulk counterparts
metal oxide nanomaterials generate more oxidative stress and are more toxic than their bulk counterparts
224
THC is the most what component of cannabis
psychoactive
- typical effective dosing of THC- low dose is less than 7 mg, medium dose is 7-18 mg, and a high dose is greater than 18 mg
- known tolerance to THC via down regulation of cannabinoid receptors
- high probability of tolerance with chronic use, and low with intermittent
225
what is the difference between volume and number distribution
Number distribution is useful for understanding the relative abundance of different particle sizes, while volume distribution is useful for understanding the total volume or mass contribution of each size.
226
what is different about caffeine compared to other stimulants
- caffeine has a unique mechanism as a stimulant as it works as an inhibitor at the adenosine receptors
227
bioconcentration
the net accumulation in and on an organism of a contaminant FROM WATER ONLY
228
recommended dietary allowances
the daily intake level sufficient to meet to nutrient requirements of almost all healthy individuals in a group
229
what are examples of opioids and where do natural opioids come from
heroin, oxycontin, vicodin, codeine, morphine, methadone, and fentanyl
- natural opioids come from the poppy, synthetic opioids are made entirely in a lab, and semi-synthetic opioids are synthesized from naturally occurring opium products
230
what is released from nanoparticles that is toxic to bacteria and aquatic organisms
metal ions released from nps are toxic to bacteria and aquatic organisms
231
FDA history
- passage of the 1906 pure food and drugs act
- this act prohibited interstate commerce in adulterated and misbranded food and drugs
232
clinical features of cholinergic
blood pressure- slight decrease or no change
pulse- decrease
temp- no change
pupils- miosis
233
different mechanisms of action for the antidotes
- chelating agents
- antagonism
- chemical reaction
234
serotonin
5-hydroxytryptamine- 5-HT
- affects mood, emotions, appetite, and digestion
- precursor for melatonin- helps regulate the sleep-wake cycles in the body
235
mass spectrometry
analytical technique that ionizes chemical species and sorts the ions into a spectrum based on their mass-to-charge ratio. Measures the masses within a sample
236
cannabinoid receptors
identified CB1 and CB2 genes
- both G-protein coupled
- when active, release of many NTs is inhibited
CB1, metabotropic
- on axon terminals
- inhibits cAMP formation and voltage-gated Ca2+ channels, activates k+ channels
- in basal ganglia, cerebellum, hippocampus, and cerebral cortex
CB2
- only in immune system
